TOPIC- ANALYSING THE SC VERDICT ON SAME-SEX MARRIAGE

THE CONTEXT: Recently, a five-judge Constitution bench headed by the Chief Justice of India has delivered its verdict on the issue of same sex marriage. The Court has taken some steps to protect same-sex unions from discrimination. But in the final analysis, the Court did not grant recognition to same-sex marriage and stated that there is no fundamental right to marry. This article analyses the judgement and its implications from the UPSC PERSPECTIVE.

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE SUPRIYA CHAKRABORTY VS UNION OF INDIA CASE

  • In the Supriya Chakraborty v Union of India case, petitions were filed for recognition of the right to marry and establish a family to sexual and gender minority individuals in India.
  • The grounds cited by the petitioners were protections from discrimination, the right to equality, dignity, personal liberty, privacy, and personal autonomy, and freedom of conscience and expression.
  • Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud and Justice Sanjay Kishan Kaul have ruled that queer couples have a right to seek recognition for their union but declined to read down the provisions of the Special Marriage Act to that effect.
  • On the other hand, Justices S. Ravindra Bhat, Hima Kohli and P.S. Narasimha rejected the position, holding that any such recognition can only be based on statute.

  • Hence, in the final verdict, a 3-2 majority favoured the refusal of legal recognition to unions other than heteronormative ones. The bench asserted that there is no fundamental right to marriage under the Indian Constitution.
  • The Court upheld the Special Marriage Act, 1954 in its current form, e., permitting marriages only between a ‘man’ and a ‘woman’. It does not extend it to same-sex marriages.
  • It upheld the institution of marriage flows from the statutes created by the state and the right to marry is not expressly recognized either as a fundamental or constitutional right under the Indian Constitution but a statutory right.
  • The Court has accepted the government’s view that any move to legalise same-sex marriages will fall in the legislature’s domain.
  • The Centre has been told to establish a high-powered committee under the Cabinet Secretary to consider the scheme of rights flowing from the civil union. This would range from opening joint bank accounts, same-sex spouses being a beneficiary for provident funds, pensions or inheritance to such spouses, among others.

MINORITY STAND

  • Emphasis of individual liberty, dignity and choice: They argued that the legal recognition of civil unions for non-heterosexual couples represents a step towards marriage equality. They said that the right to form unions comes from the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression, and the right to life. The minority view also said that with civil union status, same-sex couples must be extended the “bouquet of rights” that heterosexual couples are entitled to.
  • Recognizing past injustices faced by the queer group and the state’s insensitivity:  Majority stand, has highlighted the discrimination faced by queer group. The queer people exist across all communities and settlements, urban or rural and state is quite insensitive to address their concerns.

MAJORITY STAND

  • Three judges of the five-judge Constitution bench disagreed with the Chief Justice of India on adoption rights for LGBTQIA people but agreed that the Special Marriage Act, 1956 (SMA) cannot be interpreted in such a manner so as to enable marriage between queer persons.
  • Majority stated that the legislation regarding institution of marriage comes within the state power and only state has the power to frame such legislation by framing an independent structure for queers.
  • The line between recognizing rights and overstepping boundaries: It is recognised that LGBTQ community faces discrimination from the state but declined acceptance on same-sex marriage. As such, a decision fell outside its purview and should be addressed by the Indian Parliament.
  • Separation of Power: Majority opinion stated that striking down the SMA provisions would jeopardise the legal framework for interfaith and inter-caste couples. It was added that interpreting the SMA in a gender-neutral way would amount to “judicial lawmaking”, which would violate the doctrine of separation of powers.

THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT: PREVIOUS JUDGMENTS

NALSA CASE JUDGEMENT (2014)

  • In the NALSA case judgement, the court held that transgenders fall within the purview of the Indian Constitution and thus are fully entitled to the rights guaranteed therein.
  • The court made a distinction between biological sex and psychological sex. The judgment affirmed transgender people’s fundamental right to marry.

K. PUTTASWAMY V UNION OF INDIA (2017)

  • It linked privacy with the rights of queer persons. In this judgement on Right to privacy, the Supreme Court held that sexual orientation of any individual comes under his/her Right to Privacy.
  • This landmark judgement became the basis of declaring Sec 377 of IPC, under which Homosexuality was a crime, unconstitutional.

NAVTEJ SINGH JOHAR AND OTHERS V. UNION OF INDIA 2018

  • In September 2018, a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court unanimously decriminalized consensual sex between two adults irrespective of their gender and partially struck down Section 377 of the IPC.
  • The court referred to those areas of the section that criminalized consensual unnatural sex as “irrational, indefensible and manifestly arbitrary”.
  • The SC held that members of the LGBTQ community “are entitled, as all other citizens, to the full range of constitutional rights including the liberties protected by the Constitution and are entitled to equal citizenship and equal protection of law.
  • However, in its ruling, the court also made it clear that other aspects dealing with unnatural sex with animals and children still remained in force, and that it was confining its order to consenting acts between two adults.

SHAKTI VAHINI V. UNION OF INDIA (2018)

  • A petition was filed under Art. 32 of the Indian Constitution to seek directions for the state governments as well as Central govt. to take necessary steps to prevent honour-related crimes.
  • The SC recognized the right of two consenting adults to choose each other as partners in marriage to be a fundamental right under Arts. 19 and 21 of the Indian constitution.
  • There is no requirement of consent of the family members, community or clan as a whole is not required.

THE RELEVANCE OF THIS CASE FOR THE  INDIAN SOCIETY

  • Large sections of Indian society are still opposed to the legalisation of same-sex marriages on religious and cultural grounds.
  • People believe marriage is traditionally defined as a union between a man and a woman. According to society, altering this definition undermines traditional family values and the institution of marriage.
  • Opponents argue that the primary purpose of marriage is procreation and raising children, and same-sex couples cannot fulfill this purpose. They believe children need both a mother and a father for a well-rounded upbringing.
  • Same-sex marriage is seen as inconsistent with Indian cultural and religious beliefs by opponents. They fear legalizing it would erode traditional values and contribute to the Westernization of Indian culture.
  • According to a survey titled ‘Politics and Society Between Elections 2019’ conducted by the Delhi-based think tank Centre for the Study Developing Societies (CSDS)-Lokniti in collaboration with Azim Premji University in Bengaluru. More than half of the respondents disapproved of recognition for same-sex relationships.
  • The findings of the survey contradict popular perceptions about Indian acceptance of same-sex relationships as it was earlier thought as elitist and urban which comes out contradictory in survey. Nearly 59% of urban respondents said they did not want society to accept same-sex relationships in contraction to 53% of rural respondents. Also, at the same time, it is found that income does shape one’s opinion on same-sex relationships, but higher income doesn’t necessarily lead to a tilt towards acceptance.
  • According to the survey, India’s minorities, in comparison to religious majorities, tend to strongly reject same-sex relationships. The religiosity in the state could be a link in defining their attitude towards such unions.

PUBLIC PERCEPTION AND MEDIA ROLE

  • The survey found that increased media exposure leads to higher acceptance of same-sex relationships as media plays a key role in shaping opinion around LGBTQIA+,
  • The findings also show that only 10 per cent of respondents with no media exposure tend to exhibit acceptance of same-sex relationships. The acceptance rate can go as high as 33 per cent for those with very high media exposure.

JURISPRUDENTIAL EXAMINATION FROM THREE PERSPECTIVES: LEGAL, MORAL, AND SOCIOLOGICAL

LEGAL

  • The case has a legal angle attached to the judgement as the court has cited the limits of its jurisdiction and emphasised the legislative authority over such matters.
  • There arises issue of violation of fundamental rights which is cited by petitioners that the exclusion of couples from sexual and gender minority communities from marriage laws constituted a violation of fundamental right. Similarly, the notice and objection provisions in secular marriage laws Special Marriage Act and Foreign Marriage Act constituted a violation.
  • However, Jurisprudence of the courts interpreting constitutional provisions and including new rights in a liberal and expansive manner was not put into practice in this case.
  • Hence, following Article 32 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Constitutional Remedies and designates the Supreme Court as the protector of Fundamental Rights, the petitioners argued that they are within their rights to approach the Supreme Court.

MORAL

  • Another angle attached to the case is moral angle. Violating the rights of the queer community comes under the violation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), of which India is a signatory.
  • Even the Indian Constitution and courts have also been greatly influenced by the UDHR.
  • Even in the Maneka Gandhi case, the Court relied on Article 10 of the UDHR to include principles of natural justice in the administrative process.
  • In Navtej Johar Case (2018), CJI DY Chandrachud had held that “the Court has to be guided by the conception of constitutional morality and not by societal morality”.

SOCIOLOGICAL.

  • The case tends to have societal impacts as it regulates relationships between people and prescribes behaviour patterns reflecting societal values.
  • However, as the social realities change, the law changes. Also, sometimes a legal change precedes societal changes and is even intended to stimulate.
  • Also, Article 15 of the Indian Constitution guarantees protection from discrimination. The Supreme Court extended the protection to include sexual orientation and gender identity.
  • The Supreme Court itself has  held that the choice of marital partner is an exercise of freedom of expression enshrined in Article 19 in Vikas Yadav v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2016), Asha Ranjan v. State of Bihar (2017), Shakti Vahini v. UOI (2018) and Shafin Jahan v Ashokan K.M. (2018).
  • The SC said that unwarranted disclosure of the marriage plans might jeopardise the marriage and endanger the lives of the couple because of societal perception.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE JUDGEMENT FOR THE FUTURE

  • Setback for the queer community: The ruling is a setback for India’s LGBTQ community. Many had expected the Supreme Court to grant them the right to marry their partners. As, in 2018 the supreme court scrapped a colonial-era law banning homosexuality in India, hope was this time for same sex marriage. While acceptance of homosexuality is growing, this judgement proves that Indian society still remains largely conservative. It is resistance to opening up marriage to same-sex couples, who still face rampant discrimination and harassment in society.
  • Maintaining Status quo: There is no real meaningful application of the case as it keeps the status quo running with no important verdict. Beyond recognising natal family violence, it “doesn’t provide any real immediately actionable right to queer couples.
  • No recognition in society: Marriage is indeed a social institution, with its own legal requirements and conditions for what constitutes a valid marriage. The right to seek social and legal validation through marriage is a matter of individual choice protected by the Constitution, but the Court still views it as being subject to statutory limitations.
  • Formation of committee: The Court called on the Solicitor General’s submission that the government will constitute a committee, chaired by the Cabinet Secretary, to set out the benefits and entitlements for same-sex couples. It is to see whether the committee takes the right decision for ensuring the rights of the queer community.
  • Less chance of legislation: Given that large sections of India may be opposed to the legalisation of same-sex marriages on religious and cultural grounds, the possibility of Parliament taking the initiative to do so is quite less. Also, States such as Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have opposed outright the legal recognition of same-sex marriages in the past. This judgment will only delay the already long and arduous struggle to create the conditions where same sex couples could live a life in freedom without fear.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Queer inclusive Policies: There is a need of proactive approach by law enforcement agencies by bringing in legal reforms. Inclusive approach for queer couples must be planned and adopted by the Government and society.
  • Dialogue and Engagement: Engaging in a dialogue with religious leaders and communities can help bridge the gap between traditional beliefs and modern attitudes towards same-sex relationships. By working together, we can create a more inclusive society where everyone has the right to love and marry whomever they choose, regardless of their gender.
  • Sensitization of authorities:There is a need of sensitization of authorities by creating awareness regarding equality of individuals irrespective of gender by modifying their behaviour and views. Change of approach of authorities can led to gender justice, equality and inclusion of queer community in the society.
  • Granting recognition to marriage: It should be on the part of the legislature to frame adequate laws to grant recognition to the marriage of queer people. It is the duty of the State to extend necessary protection. It would signal a positive message and acceptance in society for queer people as well.
  • Regulatory framework:There should be a separate anti-discrimination law and proper laws for punishment for the discriminatory practices against queer people to undo the historical injustice against the community as current laws are fragmented.
  • Adoption regulation:Law on adoption should be on the basis of merit, not on sex. Merely because a relationship is regulated by law, it does not mean that couples who are not married are not serious about their relationship.
  • Global recognition:A growing number of governments around the world are considering whether to grant legal recognition to same-sex marriages. India should also come forward to grant legal recognition for protection of their rights. State legislatures can enact laws recognising and regulating same-sex marriages; the Constitution under Articles 245 and 246 empowers both the Parliament and the State to enact marriage regulations. They need to create a gender-neutral law for marriage.

THE CONCLUSION: This verdict of the Supreme Court seems to have a significant impact on the queer community, and its significance lies in the broader trajectory of LGBTQ+ rights in India. The courts and the government have to come out and need to take steps for the larger good of marginalised communities as well. There is a need to create a more inclusive society by giving equal rights regardless of their gender.

MAINS QUESTIONS

Q.1 Queer community faces various challenges in Indian society. How far legalization of same sex marriage would address the discrimination faced by them? Analyse with respect to the impact of previous judgements of the Supreme Court.

Q.2 The Supreme Court’s recent unanimous verdict against legalizing same-sex marriage in India underscores the ongoing struggle for LGBTQ+ rights. Critically examine the implication of the judgement on the queer community.




TOPIC- AN ANALYSIS OF THE ISRAEL-PALESTINE CONFLICT

THE CONTEXT:  The 7th October 2023 attack by Hamas on Israel, in which more than 700 Israelis have been killed, is believed to be the Palestinian militant group’s response to attempts at achieving “normalisation” of relations between Israel and other Muslim countries in West Asia. This has revived the century-old dispute between Israel-Palestine Conflict once again, necessitating the intervention by global and regional powers. This article explains in detail the various aspects of these conflicts from the UPSC perspective.

ABOUT ISRAEL-PALESTINE CONFLICT

The present issue of conflict inside Israel – Palestine arose, when Hamas militant fighters fired rockets into Israel and stormed southern Israeli cities and towns across the border of the Gaza strip, killing and injuring hundreds of soldiers and civilians and taking dozens of hostages. The attack took Israel by surprise, though the state quickly mounted a deadly retaliatory operation. After then the Israeli cabinet formally declared war against Hamas, followed by a directive from the defense minister to the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) to carry out a “complete siege” of Gaza. Since then, the two sides have traded daily rocket fire, and Israel ordered more than one million Palestinian civilians in northern Gaza to evacuate ahead of a possible ground assault.

Ismail Haniyeh, a Hamas leader said, “All the agreements of normalisation that you (Arab states) signed with (Israel) will not end this conflict,” referring to the larger Israel-Palestine conflict. The Iran-backed Lebanese group Hezbollah, which has also attacked Israeli forces in the north, said the attack was a “decisive response to Israel’s continued occupation and a message to those seeking normalisation with Israel”.

Background:

The conflict has its roots in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when Jewish immigrants began to settle in Palestine under the Ottoman Empire and, later, under British colonial rule. The United Nations partition plan of 1947, which aimed to establish separate Jewish and Arab states, played a significant role in shaping the conflict.

CREATION OF PALESTINE

The creation of a Palestinian state is a complex and contentious issue with a long history of conflict and diplomatic efforts. The goal of establishing a sovereign Palestinian state alongside Israel, often referred to as the “two-state solution,” has been the subject of numerous negotiations, initiatives, and international diplomacy.

The process and key developments related to the creation of a Palestinian state:

Mandate Period (1917-1948): During the Mandate period, Palestine was under British control following World War I, as mandated by the League of Nations. The Balfour Declaration of 1917, which expressed British support for a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, set the stage for subsequent conflicts.

Balfour Declaration:

  • The Balfour Declaration is a public statement issued by the British government in 1917 during World War I am announcing its support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a small minority Jewish population.
  • The declaration is contained in a letter dated 2 November 1917 from the United Kingdom’s Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. It is highly controversial since its declaration. It is root of main cause of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

It played a key role in the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and continues to be a reason of tension and conflict between Israelis and Palestinians.

United Nations Partition Plan (1947): In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan that would have established separate Jewish and Arab states in Palestine, with an international administration for Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by Arab states and Palestinian Arabs.

1948 Arab-Israeli War: The declaration of the State of Israel in 1948 led to the first Arab-Israeli war. Israel declared independence, and neighboring Arab states intervened. The war resulted in Israel gaining control of a larger portion of Palestine.

Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO): The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) has played a significant role in the Israel-Palestine conflict since its inception. Its influence, actions, and interactions with various stakeholders have had various effects on the conflict.

Its formation marked the beginning of a more organized Palestinian national movement. The PLO’s early efforts focused on diplomatic recognition and support from Arab states.

The PLO’s engagement with the Oslo Accords and the recognition of the State of Israel was a crucial turning point in the conflict.

Occupation of West Bank and Gaza (1967): The Six-Day War in 1967 resulted in Israel occupying the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights.

Camp David Accords (1978):

The Camp David Accords were a pair of political agreements signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on September 17, 1978, following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, the country retreat of the President of the United States in Maryland. The two framework agreements were signed at the White House and were witnessed by President Jimmy Carter. The second of these frameworks (A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel) led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty.

EMERGENCE OF HAMAS

  • Hamas, or the Islamic Resistance Movement, emerged in the late 1980s as a Palestinian political and militant organization.
  • It was founded during the First Intifada (Palestinian uprising) against Israeli rule in the occupied territories.
  • Hamas is an Islamist organization with roots in the Muslim Brotherhood. It combines political and militant activities with a focus on Islamic governance and resistance against Israeli occupation.
  • It has engaged in acts of violence, including suicide bombings and rocket attacks, against Israel. This has led to its designation as a terrorist organization by several countries.
  • In the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections, Hamas won a majority of seats in the Palestinian Legislative Council, leading to its control of the Gaza Strip. This victory further complicated the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
  • Hamas’s rise to power in Gaza resulted in a political and territorial divide with the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority in the West Bank. This division has persisted for years, contributing to the fragmentation of Palestinian territories.
  • Hamas continues to be a significant player in the Israel-Palestine conflict, and its emergence has had a profound impact on the political and security dynamics in the region.

Hamas: Hamas is regarded as a terrorist organization by the U.S. government. In 2006, Hamas won the Palestinian Authority’s legislative elections. It ejected Fatah from Gaza in 2007, splitting the Palestinian movement geographically, as well. Hamas continues to be a significant player in the Israel-Palestine conflict, and its emergence has had a profound impact on the political and security dynamics in the region.

1987: Tensions in the occupied territories of West Bank and Gaza reached boiling point resulting in the First Intifada (Palestinian Uprising). It grew into a small war between Palestinian militants and the Israeli army.

Oslo Accords (1993-1995): The Oslo Accords were a series of agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) that aimed to establish a Palestinian Authority with limited self-governance in parts of the West Bank and Gaza. These agreements were intended as interim measures leading to a final resolution, but a permanent solution was never reached.

  • 1993: Under the Oslo Accords Israel and the PLO agree to officially recognize each other and renounce the use of violence. The Oslo Accords also established the Palestinian Authority, which received limited autonomy in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank.
  • 2005: Israel begins a unilateral withdrawal of Jews from settlements in Gaza. However, Israel kept tight control over all border crossings (blockade).
  • 2012: UN upgrades Palestinian representation to that of “non-member observer state”.
  • Territorial Disputes of Israel with Neighboring Countries:

West Bank: The West Bank is sandwiched between Israel and Jordan. One of its major cities is Ramallah, the de facto administrative capital of Palestine. Israel took control of it in the 1967 war and has over the years established settlements there.

Gaza: The Gaza Strip located between Israel and Egypt. Israel occupied the strip after 1967, but relinquished control of Gaza City and day-to-day administration in most of the territory during the Oslo peace process. In 2005, Israel unilaterally removed Jewish settlements from the territory, though it continues to control international access to it.

Golan Heights: The Golan Heights is a strategic plateau that Israel captured from Syria in the 1967 war. Israel effectively annexed the territory in 1981. Recently, the USA has officially recognized Jerusalem and Golan Heights as a part of Israel.

PEACE INITIATIVES

  • Various international and regional peace initiatives have been proposed, including the Camp David Accords, the Roadmap for Peace, and the Arab Peace Initiative.
  • These initiatives sought to address the core issues of borders, refugees, Jerusalem, and security.In January 2022, the creation of a sovereign Palestinian state alongside Israel had not been realized. The situation remained marked by ongoing conflicts, Israeli settlements in the West Bank, and disputes over the status of Jerusalem and refugees.
  • Many countries and international organizations have expressed support for a two-state solution, with a sovereign and viable Palestinian state living side by side with Israel.
  • Efforts to create a Palestinian state continue to be a major focus of international diplomacy and conflict resolution.

WHAT ARE THE IMPACTS OF THE ONGOING WAR?

  • Israel-Palestine conflict has had far-reaching and detrimental consequences, affecting the daily lives and well-being of individuals and communities in the region, as well as contributing to broader regional and international challenges.
  • The conflict has resulted in the loss of numerous lives, including both Israeli and Palestinian civilians, as well as combatants. Many people have been injured, some of whom suffer long-term physical and psychological trauma.
  • Frequent military operations and clashes have caused significant damage to infrastructure, including housing, schools, hospitals, and businesses. The conflict has resulted in economic instability, high unemployment rates, and poverty in both Israeli and Palestinian communities.
  • The Middle East accounts for nearly a third of the global oil supply. The conflict has led to a surge in crude oil prices, with Brent crude and US West Texas Intermediate crude witnessing significant hikes. If the conflict spreads to other oil-producing nations in the region, especially Iran, the global economy could face severe repercussions.
  • India’s exports to Israel, primarily petroleum products, account for 1.8% of India’s total merchandise exports. If the conflict escalates, it could create supply-side problems.
  • The conflict has made investors wary, leading to a shift towards safe-haven assets. Equity markets globally have been affected, with US stock futures and Asian markets trading lower.
  • The involvement of other nations, especially Iran, could exacerbate the situation. Iran’s potential retaliation could endanger the passage of vessels through the Strait of Hormuz, a critical global oil supply route.

WHAT WERE THE ABRAHAMIC ACCORDS AND RECENT ATTEMPTS AT NORMALISATION?

In 2002, Saudi Arabia led an Arab Peace Initiative, which proposed the withdrawal of Israel from the territories it had occupied in 1967, including the Golan Heights, the settlement of the Palestinian refugee question, and the recognition of East Jerusalem as the capital of an independent Palestinian state. Only then could there be a normalisation of relations between the Arab world and Israel, it said.

  • The initiative was subsequently endorsed twice by the Arab League. Over the past dozen-odd years, a series of developments in the region have led to incremental progress in the process of ‘normalisation’.

Rise of MBS: In Saudi Arabia, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MBS) is keen to expand beyond his kingdom’s traditional spheres of economic interests. Israel-Saudi ties have made progress in recent months. Israel’s Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said a few weeks ago that an agreement with its historical rival in the region was in the works and would be brokered by the US.

Abrahamic Accords: The two countries signed a normalisation deal in 2020 that came into effect the following year. Also brokered by the US, the “Abrahamic Accords” led to the UAE becoming the third Arab country, after Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, to agree to formally normalise its relationship with Israel. The two countries also signed a trade deal in May 2022.

The Abraham Accords initially included the UAE and Bahrain, and later, Sudan and Morocco. As The Indian Express reported then, “The accord was contingent on the suspension of Israel’s plans to annex the West Bank, although it is noteworthy that they chose the word ‘suspend’ instead of ‘end.’”

The Iran factor: Abu Dhabi’s Crown Prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan is seen as a leader who considers “an expansionist Iran and transnational political Islamists” as the “principal threats” to the UAE and its allies. In this assessment, Israel is seen as a formidable regional power that shares these views, so better ties with it make strategic sense. The promise of being closer to “the US strategic orbit” is an important factor too.

Emergence of China: The rise of China is key, which was behind an attempt at normalisation of ties between Saudi Arabia and Iran this year. While the endurance of these ties over a long period has been questioned, it still points to another lasting, complex political issue in the region seeing some kind of forward movement. It also showed China utilising its economic heft to emerge as a player in regions that were so far mostly seeing US involvement.

WHERE DOES THE PALESTINIAN ISSUE FIGURE IN ALL OF THIS?

  • The struggle of the Palestinians has been seen as being put on the back burner, even as conflict and violence have not stopped. There is deep unhappiness among the more militant sections of the Palestinians, and even the moderate West Bank government of Mahmoud Abbas has criticised many of these agreements.
  • A 2020 article for the think tank Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (‘Without the Palestinians, Israeli Normalization Is Still Beyond Reach’), argued that the normalisation of ties cannot take hold truly unless past annexations and other points of concern are not resolved. This was crucial for the region’s people, and not just governments.
  • “Normalization is not simply a top-level exchange of officials; rather, it’s a public-to-public engagement. Decades after the Egyptian peace accords, people-to-people normalization does not exist, and relations remain quite cold on a cultural level announcing partial or full diplomatic relations with Arab states does not result in acceptance by Arab populations, unless accompanied by grassroots buy-in, which is inextricably connected to the question of Palestine,”.

IMPACT OF ISRAEL-PALESTINE CONFLICT ON INDIA AND INTERNATIONAL GEOPOLITICAL SCENARIO

The Israel-Palestine conflict has implications for India and the broader international geopolitical scenario.

Impact on India:

1. Foreign Policy Challenges: India’s stance on the Israel-Palestine conflict poses foreign policy challenges. Historically, India has expressed solidarity with the Palestinian cause, rooted in its anti-colonial and pro-self-determination principles. However, India has also developed strong diplomatic, economic, and security ties with Israel. Balancing these interests can be challenging.

2. Energy and Defense Cooperation: India has a growing energy relationship with Israel, primarily through the import of Israeli natural gas. India also benefits from Israeli defense technology and cooperation in various sectors, including cybersecurity.

3. Tensions within the Indian Diaspora: India is home to a diverse population with varied views on the Israel-Palestine conflict. The issue can sometimes lead to internal tensions and debates within the Indian diaspora.

4. Global Diplomacy: India’s stance on the Israel-Palestine conflict is part of its broader approach to international diplomacy. India often aligns itself with Non-Aligned Movement principles and seeks to play a role in global peace and security. Its positions on the Israel-Palestine conflict can influence its relations with other countries and organizations.

Impact on the International Geopolitical Scenario:

1. Global Alliances: The Israel-Palestine conflict has been a defining issue in the Middle East, with various global and regional powers taking sides. The U.S. has traditionally supported Israel, while other countries, including Russia, the European Union, and various Arab states, have expressed support for the Palestinian cause. This conflict has influenced global alliances and conflicts in the region.

2. Terrorism and Security Concerns: The Israel-Palestine conflict has contributed to regional instability and security concerns. Various Palestinian factions have been involved in acts of terrorism, and Israel’s security measures have often led to tension. These issues have ripple effects on global security dynamics.

3. Diplomatic Initiatives: The international community, including the United Nations and regional organizations, has consistently attempted to mediate and find a resolution to the conflict. The lack of a comprehensive and lasting solution has raised questions about the efficacy of international diplomacy.

4. Human Rights and Humanitarian Concerns: The conflict has resulted in a significant humanitarian crisis, with casualties and displacement on both sides. The treatment of Palestinians in the occupied territories and the status of refugees remain key human rights concerns on the global stage.

INDIA’S RESPONSE

  • India’s response to the Israel-Palestine conflict has evolved over the years, reflecting a combination of historical factors, foreign policy considerations, and domestic concerns.
  • India has consistently advocated for a peaceful resolution to the conflict based on the principles of a two-state solution, where Israel and Palestine coexist side by side in peace and security. India’s position aligns with international consensus on this issue.
  • India maintains diplomatic relations with both Israel and the Palestinian Authority. It has a diplomatic mission in Tel Aviv and a Consulate General in East Jerusalem, which serves as its de facto embassy to the Palestinians.
  • India has support his decision to abstain vote at the UN General Assembly (UNGA) for a ceasefire in the Israel-Palestine conflict as its way of protesting the omission of any “explicit condemnation” of the heinous 7th Oct 2023, terror attack by Hamas militants on Israel.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Two-State Solution, the Israel and Palestine coexist as separate, sovereign states. Negotiations should aim to define the borders of both states, ensuring that each has viable, contiguous territory.
  • Encourage both parties, Israel and Palestine, to engage in direct negotiations. International mediation may play a role, but ultimately, the parties themselves must agree on the terms of a settlement.
  • Negotiations should focus on the core issues, including borders, the status of Jerusalem, security arrangements, refugees, and water rights. A just and mutually agreed-upon resolution of these issues is essential for a lasting peace.
  • Engage international actors, including the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, and regional powers, to support the peace process and ensure the parties’ compliance with agreements.
  • Implement confidence-building measures to create trust between the parties. These may include prisoner releases, the cessation of settlement construction, and economic development in Palestinian territories.
  • Involve regional players, such as Egypt, Jordan, and the Arab League, to support the peace process and contribute to regional stability.
  • Focus on long-term economic and social development in both Israel and Palestine to address the root causes of the conflict and create a sustainable peace.

THE CONCLUSION:

The Israel-Palestine conflict is extremely challenging and may require a long-term commitment from all parties involved. The path to peace must address the legitimate aspirations and security concerns of both Israelis and Palestinians and respect their right to self-determination.

UPSC PERSPECTIVE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Analyze how the Israel-Palestine conflict affects India’s foreign policy, particularly in terms of balancing its support for the Palestinian cause and its growing relations with Israel.

Q.2 Explain the Abraham Accords and the recent attempts at normalization between Israel and various Arab states. Discuss the factors that are posing challenges to this normalization process.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q.1 Which one of the following countries of South-West Asia does not open out to the Mediterranean Sea? (2015)

(a)    Syria

(b)    Jordan

(c)     Lebanon

(d)    Israel

Ans: (b)

Mains

Q.1 ‘Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life.’ Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’. (2019)

Q.2 “India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss. (2018)




TOPIC – WHY ARE EARTHQUAKES FREQUENT IN THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT REGION?

THE CONTEXT: Western Afghanistan experienced a magnitude 6.3 earthquake on October 15, 2023, occurring shortly after multiple earthquakes with similar magnitudes claimed the lives of at least a thousand individuals in the Herat province. The Indian subcontinent is highly vulnerable to frequent earthquakes due to several geomorphological factors. The following article attempts to assess the reasons for frequent earthquakes in the Indian sub-continent from UPSC perspective.

FREQUENT EARTHQUAKES IN AFGHANISTAN

  • Afghanistan has a history of enduring extensive destruction due to powerful earthquakes. For instance, in June 2022, a magnitude 6.1 earthquake struck Khost and Paktika provinces, resulting in over 1,000 casualties. In 2015, a significant earthquake in the northeast of the country caused the deaths of more than 200 people in both Afghanistan and neighboring northern Pakistan. Additionally, a 6.1-magnitude earthquake in 2002 claimed around 1,000 lives in northern Afghanistan.

Why Afghanistan is earthquake prone?

  • Afghanistan, a nation bordered by mountains and known for its history of significant seismic activity, frequently witnesses strong earthquakes, particularly in the challenging Hindu Kush region near the Pakistan border.
  • Afghanistan’s location is marked by the convergence of multiple fault lines, where the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates meet and interact. This frequent collision of plates results in considerable tectonic activity in the region.
  • Afghanistan is situated on the Eurasian plate. In western Afghanistan, the Arabian plate subducts northward beneath Eurasia, while in the east, the Indian plate similarly subducts under Eurasia. In southern Afghanistan, the Arabian and Indian plates meet and both subducts northward under the Eurasian plate.
  • The geological complexity of the Hindu Kush Mountain range and the Pamir Knot, where these tectonic plates converge, contributes to the folding and faulting of the Earth’s crust. This geological intricacy is a significant factor behind the occurrence of earthquakes in the area.
  • Moreover, the continual northward movement of the Indian Plate toward the Eurasian Plate leads to compression, resulting in the uplifting of the Himalayas and the transmission of tectonic stress across the entire region, including Afghanistan. This compression causes the Earth’s crust to deform, creating faults and fractures that can slip and generate earthquakes. The interactions at these plate boundaries generate substantial tectonic stresses, leading to seismic events.
  • Afghanistan is also intersected by various active fault systems such as the Chaman Fault and the Main Pamir Thrust. These fault systems serve as sources of numerous earthquakes in the region.

UNDERSTANDING THE GENESIS OF EARTHQUAKES

  • Earthquakes are the result of sudden movement along faults within the Earth. The movement releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which propagate through the Earth and cause the ground surface to shake. Such movement on the faults is generally a response to long-term deformation and the buildup of stress.
  • Seismic waves from large earthquakes pass throughout the Earth. These waves contain vital information about the internal structure of the Earth. As seismic waves pass through the Earth, they are refracted, or bent, like rays of light bend when they pass through a glass prism.
  • The Earth’s outermost layer is fragmented into about 15 major slabs called tectonic plates. These slabs form the lithosphere, which is comprised of the crust (continental and oceanic) and the upper part of the mantle. Tectonic plates move very slowly relative to each other, typically a few centimeters per year, but this still causes a huge amount of deformation at the plate boundaries, which in turn results in earthquakes.
  • What drives the movement of tectonic plates?

Below the tectonic plates lies the Earth’s asthenosphere. The asthenosphere behaves like a fluid over very long-time scale. There are a number of competing theories that attempt to explain what drives the movement of tectonic plates.

    • Mantle convection currents: warm mantle currents drive and carry plates of lithosphere along a like a conveyor belt.
    • Ridge push (buoyant upwelling mantle at mid-ocean ridges): newly formed plates at oceanic ridges are warm, so they have a higher elevation at the oceanic ridge than the colder, more dense plate material further away; gravity causes the higher plate at the ridge to push away the lithosphere that lies further from the ridge.
    • Slab pull: older, colder plates sink at subduction zones because, as they cool, they become denser than the underlying mantle and the cooler, sinking plate pulls the rest of the warmer plate along behind it.

INDIA’S VULNERABILITY TOWARDS EARTHQUAKES

India is prone to earthquakes due to its geographical location and tectonic activity. India is situated on the Indian Plate, which is moving northward and colliding with the Eurasian Plate. The interaction between these two plates causes frequent earthquakes in the region. Here are some major earthquake-prone zones in India:

  • Himalayan Region: The Himalayan region is one of the most seismically active zones in India. The collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates causes frequent earthquakes in this region. The Himalayan region comprises several states, including Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Northeastern Region: The northeastern region of India is also seismically active due to its location on the boundary of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The region comprises states such as Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Meghalaya.
  • Central India: Central India is also prone to earthquakes, although it experiences fewer earthquakes compared to the Himalayan and northeastern regions. The region includes states such as Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.
  • Western India: The western region of India is also seismically active, primarily due to its proximity to the Arabian Sea. The region includes states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan.
  • Andaman and Nicobar Islands: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also prone to earthquakes due to their location on the boundary of the Indian and Burmese plates.

WHY INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT IS PRONE TO FREQUENT EARTHQUAKES?

Earthquakes are frequent in the Indian subcontinent region primarily due to its tectonic setting and the interactions of major geological plates. The primary reasons for the seismic activity in this region are as follows:

1. Plate Tectonics: The Indian subcontinent is located at the convergence of several major tectonic plates. The most significant is the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate is moving northward and is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate, creating immense pressure and stress along the plate boundaries. This collision is the fundamental cause of seismic activity in the region.

  • Indian Plate: The Indian Plate is a massive tectonic plate that includes the entire Indian subcontinent and extends into the Indian Ocean. It is in motion, and its primary direction of movement is northward.
  • Eurasian Plate: To the north of the Indian Plate lies the Eurasian Plate, which encompasses a vast region of Europe and Asia, including most of China and Russia. This plate is significantly larger and thicker than the Indian Plate.
  • Convergent Boundary: The key geological feature of the Indian subcontinent is the convergent boundary formed by the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. This collision is a result of the northward movement of the Indian Plate, which is converging with the Eurasian Plate at a rate of several centimeters per year. This collision zone extends across the northern boundary of India, Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of Pakistan.
  • Himalayan Mountain Building: The immense pressure and force generated by the converging Indian and Eurasian plates lead to the uplift of the Earth’s crust in the region. This results in the formation of the towering Himalayan Mountain range, which is one of the youngest and most spectacular mountain chains on Earth. The Himalayas continue to rise due to this ongoing tectonic collision.
  • Seismic Activity: The interaction between these two massive plates creates tremendous stress and strain along the plate boundary. This stress is released periodically in the form of earthquakes, making the Indian subcontinent one of the most seismically active regions in the world. The seismic activity is not limited to the Himalayas but extends to other fault systems and regions throughout the subcontinent.
  • Secondary Plate Boundaries: Besides the primary collision with the Eurasian Plate, the Indian Plate also interacts with other smaller tectonic plates. For example, along the western coast of India, it subducts beneath the Arabian Plate, creating additional seismic activity. In the east, it collides with the Burmese Plate, contributing to the geological complexity of the region.

2. Himalayan Mountain Building: The Himalayan Mountain range, which stretches across northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan, is the result of the ongoing collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The slow but forceful convergence of these plates causes the Earth’s crust to crumple and uplift, resulting in frequent seismic events.

  • Subduction and Collision: The Indian Plate is denser than the Eurasian Plate, so it subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate. However, unlike traditional subduction zones where one plate sinks beneath another, in the Himalayan region, the Indian Plate is not subducting very deeply.
  • Crustal Uplift: Over millions of years, the Indian Plate has crumpled and buckled the Eurasian Plate, leading to the creation of the towering peaks and deep valleys that characterize the Himalayas.
  • Folded Mountains: The Himalayas are an excellent example of folded mountains. The intense pressure and heat generated by the colliding plates cause the rocks and sediments in the region to fold, creating anticlines and synclines and are responsible for the distinctive geological features of the Himalayas.
  • Faulting and Earthquakes: The Indian subcontinent is one of the most seismically active regions in the world due to the constant release of accumulated stress along fault lines.
  • Continued Uplift and Erosion: The Himalayan mountain-building process is ongoing. Simultaneously, erosion, driven by the monsoon rains and glacial processes, is continually wearing down the mountains.

3. Complex Fault Systems: The Indian subcontinent is indeed characterized by numerous fault systems and zones, both on-land and offshore, that contribute to the frequent occurrence of earthquakes in the region. The movement along these fault systems and their interactions contribute to the seismic activity in the region.

  • Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) Fault: The Main Himalayan Thrust marks the boundary between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, creating immense stress and strain. The release of this stress results in major earthquakes, often with devastating consequences.
  • Central Seismic Gap: The Central Seismic Gap is a segment of the MHT Fault that has not experienced a major earthquake for a prolonged period, holding possibility that the accumulated strain may be released in a future event.
  • North Anatolian Fault: The North Anatolian Fault is another significant fault system that affects the western part of the Indian subcontinent. This transform fault is located in Turkey and extends into the eastern Mediterranean.
  • Indo-Burmese Arc: Off the eastern coast of India, the Indo-Burmese Arc is a complex tectonic boundary where the Indian Plate collides with the Burmese Plate. This region is prone to seismic activity, and earthquakes here can have implications for areas along the eastern coast of India and Bangladesh.
  • Kachchh Rift Basin: In the western part of India, the Kachchh Rift Basin is characterized by several active fault systems. The 2001 Bhuj earthquake, with a magnitude of 7.7, occurred in this region, causing significant damage.
  • Andaman-Sumatra Subduction Zone: In the Indian Ocean, the Andaman-Sumatra Subduction Zone is a major tectonic boundary where the Indian Plate is subducting beneath the Burmese Plate and the Sunda Plate. This subduction zone has been responsible for several major tsunamigenic earthquakes, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.

4. Subduction Zones and Plate Boundaries: The Indian subcontinent is marked by several subduction zones and plate boundaries that significantly contribute to the occurrence of earthquakes. These tectonic features are a result of the interactions of the Indian Plate with neighboring plates and play a crucial role in shaping the seismic activity in the region.

  • Himalayan Collision Zone: The Himalayan Mountain range while not a subduction zone in the traditional sense, the intense tectonic pressure at this convergent boundary results in frequent seismic activity, including powerful earthquakes.
  • Makran Subduction Zone: Along the southwestern coast of Pakistan and southeastern Iran, the Indian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate along the Makran Subduction Zone and is a potential source of tsunamigenic earthquakes in the northern Arabian Sea.
  • Burma Plate Boundary: In the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, the Indian Plate interacts with the Burmese Plate, forming the Indo-Burmese Arc. The associated stress and strain along this boundary lead to earthquakes, with potential implications for northeastern India and Bangladesh.
  • Western and Eastern Continental Margins: Along the western and eastern coasts of India, there are continental margins where the Indian Plate interacts with the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, respectively. These interactions can lead to strike-slip and thrust faulting, causing seismic events. The 2001 Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat, for example, occurred along the western margin.
  • Carlsberg Ridge: The Carlsberg Ridge, located in the western Indian Ocean, is a mid-ocean ridge where the Indian Plate is diverging from the African Plate. The movement along this divergent boundary can also generate seismic activity.

WHY DELHI-NCR IS FACING BACK-TO-BACK EARTHQUAKES?

  • Delhi is positioned on several active seismic fault lines, including the Sohna fault line, the Mathura fault line, and the Delhi-Moradabad fault line. In contrast, Gurgaon, within the Delhi-National Capital Region, is situated on no fewer than seven fault lines, making it particularly vulnerable to seismic activity.
  • Delhi has a historical susceptibility to earthquakes because it falls within the fourth-highest seismic zone out of the five designated by the Bureau of Indian Standards. Despite this, it’s worth noting that Delhi has never served as the epicenter of any earthquake thus far, and such an occurrence is unlikely in the foreseeable future.

INDIA’S PREPAREDNESS FOR EARTHQUAKES

Nearly 58 per cent of the Indian landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes and the concerns that have been raised by the court need a policy response. The Indian government has taken several steps to tackle earthquakes in India. Here are some of the steps taken by the government for tackling earthquakes in India:

  • Building Codes and Guidelines: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has developed codes and guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction in India. These codes and guidelines provide a framework for safe and earthquake-resistant building design and construction.
  • Disaster Management Plans: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has developed disaster management plans to tackle earthquakes in India. The plans include measures for early warning systems, search and rescue operations, medical aid, and relief and rehabilitation efforts.
  • Public Awareness Campaigns: The government has launched several public awareness campaigns to educate people about earthquake safety and preparedness. The campaigns include disseminating information on earthquake-resistant construction, emergency preparedness, and evacuation procedures.
  • Seismic Monitoring: The government has established a network of seismic monitoring stations across the country to monitor seismic activity and provide early warning systems. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) operates these monitoring stations.
  • Research and Development: The government has invested in research and development to improve earthquake-resistant construction techniques and materials. The Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) and the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) are some of the institutions working on earthquake-related research and development.
  • International Collaboration: The Indian government has collaborated with international organizations, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), to improve earthquake preparedness and response in the country.

CHALLENGES IN INDIA’S EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS

  • Issues with National Building Code: National Building Code ignores the buildings that were constructed before such codes were published in 1962. Such buildings form a large part of our cities. Further, it assumes infallibility in the processes of enforcement relying only on penalization and illegalities.  It treats earthquakes as a problem of individual buildings as if they exist and behave in complete isolation from their urban context. Although India has building codes that incorporate seismic provisions, their consistent implementation remains a challenge, particularly in smaller towns and rural areas. This results in the construction of non-engineered or poorly engineered buildings.
  • Population Density: India is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, and this poses a significant challenge for earthquake management. The high population density makes it difficult to evacuate people in the event of an earthquake, and it also puts a strain on relief and rehabilitation efforts. Also, India’s rapid urbanization has led to the growth of informal settlements and slums in seismically vulnerable areas, where substandard construction practices are common.
  • Informal Construction: A significant percentage of buildings in India are constructed informally, without following proper building codes and guidelines. These buildings are often vulnerable to earthquakes and can cause significant damage and casualties.
  • Limited Resources: India is a developing country, and it often lacks the resources and infrastructure required for effective earthquake management. This includes inadequate funding for research and development, limited equipment and resources for search and rescue operations, and insufficient medical facilities for emergency treatment.
  • Geological Diversity: India has a diverse geological makeup, which makes it challenging to predict earthquake activity accurately. Different regions in the country have different seismic histories, and this requires tailored earthquake management strategies.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Retrofitting Buildings to Seismic Codes:
    • Aim: To create a system of tax-based or development rights-based incentives for retrofitting one’s building up to seismic codes.
    • Such a system of incentives will enable the growth of an industry around retrofitting and will generate a body of well-trained professionals and competent organisations.
  • Better enforcement of seismic codes:
    • Ensuring better enforcement of seismic codes through step such as the National Retrofitting Programme launched in 2014.
    • Under the programme, the Reserve Bank of India directed banks to deny loans for any building activity that does not meet the standards of earthquake-resistant design.
  • Care contemplation of construction projects:
    • For example, experts from different organisations including the Geological Survey of India, IIT Roorkee, are studying the cause of the sinking, and many geologists have blamed NTPC’s Tapovan-Vishnugad hydroelectric power project for the current disaster.
  • Strict policy formulation:
    • After the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, the Gujarat government immediately adapted new town planning schemes that widened roads and created routes for evacuation and relief work.
    • Turkish government, in denial of its own responsibility, has arrested contractors for building unsafe buildings.
  • Programmes like the ongoing Urban 20 meetings are an excellent opportunity for international knowledge exchange on earthquake preparedness. Further, India should use its G20 presidentship to arouse global attention towards this issue so as to generate collective response measures.

CASE STUDY

JAPAN

  • It has invested heavily in technological measures to mitigate the damage from the frequent earthquakes that it experiences.
  • Skyscrapers are built with counterweights and other high-tech provisions to minimise the impact of tremors.
  • Small houses are built on flexible foundations and public infrastructure is integrated with automated triggers that cut power, gas, and water lines during earthquakes.
  • This has been a result of cultivating an industry around earthquake mitigation and fostering expertise.

THE CONCLUSION: In summary, the frequent earthquakes in the Indian subcontinent region are a consequence of the complex interactions between tectonic plates, the ongoing collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate, and the presence of various fault systems. It is essential for the region to be prepared for future seismic events through proper urban planning, building codes, and early warning systems.

Strengthening building codes and guidelines, establishing early warning systems, developing search and rescue capabilities, establishing medical aid and relief and rehabilitation facilities, and public awareness campaigns are some of the key steps that can be taken to improve earthquake management and response in the country.

Questions:

Q. Explain the geology of the earthquake-prone regions in India. How does it influence the nature of earthquakes and their impacts?

Q. Examine how the formation of the Himalayas impacts the earthquake vulnerability of the Indian subcontinent.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

MAJOR EARTHQUAKES IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT:

  • 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami:
    • Date: December 26, 2004
    • Magnitude: 9.1-9.3
    • Location: The earthquake occurred off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia.
    • Reason: This devastating earthquake was caused by a massive undersea megathrust along the boundary of the Indian Plate and the Burma Plate, known as the Andaman-Sumatra Subduction Zone. The sudden release of stress along this subduction zone led to a powerful undersea earthquake and a subsequent tsunami, which affected several countries around the Indian Ocean, including India.
  • 2001 Bhuj Earthquake:
    • Date: January 26, 2001
    • Magnitude: 7.7
    • Location: The earthquake struck near Bhuj in the Kachchh region of Gujarat, India.
    • Reason: The Bhuj earthquake was the result of the complex tectonic interactions in the western part of the Indian subcontinent. The Indian Plate is colliding with the Arabian Plate along the Kachchh Rift Basin. The stress from this collision was released in the form of a powerful earthquake, causing significant damage and loss of life.
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  • 2009 Bhutan Earthquake:
    • Date: September 21, 2009
    • Magnitude: 6.1
    • Location: The epicenter was in eastern Bhutan, near the town of Mongar.
    • Reason: This earthquake occurred due to the ongoing tectonic interaction between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Bhutan, like other regions in the Himalayas, experiences significant seismic activity as a result of this ongoing collision.
  • 2023 Nepal Earthquake:
    • Magnitude: 6.1
    • Location: The earthquake’s epicenter was near Gorkha, west of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal.
    • Reason: Nepal is situated on a convergent boundary, where the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate meet and collide. This collision generates stress and pressure in the Earth’s crust, which is subsequently released as earthquakes.



TOPIC- GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS

THE CONTEXT: The bursting of the Lhonak Lake (glacial lake) and consequent increase in the water levels of river Teesta caused devastating floods in the states of Sikkim, Assam and West Bengal, causing huge devastation. Sudden cloudburst with heavy rainfall in the wake of climate change has been the alleged cause behind this grave disaster in the Teesta River basin.

A study in 2020 listed the South Lhonak lake as among the 10 lakes posing the highest GLOF threats among the 36 glacial lakes in the North Sikkim. The neglect by the government to this warning has landed the people of Teesta Basin into the misery caused by the breaking of the Lhonak lake.

Estimated loss-

  • More than 100 people were reported as missing and lives of about 90 people have been lost due to the glacial lake outburst flood.
  • The flash floods have swept away 14 bridges and the Chungthang dam of a 1,200-megawatt hydropower project.
  • It has forced 2,563 displaced people into 21 relief camps.

From the perspective of UPSC, this article delves into the Glacial Lake Outburst Floods from a broader angle to understand well its causes, implications and the mitigation mechanism necessary.

WHAT IS A GLACIAL LAKE AND HOW IS IT FORMED?

  • It is believed that about 10000 years ago, when the glaciers began retreating, they left behind large deposits of ice in the hollows between drumlins.
  • Drumlin is an oval or elongated hill formed by the streamlined movement of glacial ice sheets across rock debris, or till.
  • Glacial lakes are formed when a glacier erodes the land (through abrasion and glacial plucking) and creates depression and grooves which are then filled by the meltwater from retreating glaciers.
  • However, natural dams, formed out of ice and terminal moraines, can also form glacial lakes.
  • Moraine refers to the accumulation of rocks and sediments which have been transported or deposited by ice/glacier.
  • Lateral moraines are formed along the sides of a glacier.
  • Terminal moraine marks the maximum limit of an icesheet or glacier through formation of a linear ridge of glacial material. When such terminal moraines dam the meltwater from glacial retreat, they result into formation of a moraine-dammed glacial lake.
  • The terminal moraine exhibits a characteristic ‘kettle and hummock’ topography. Lakes and marshes are likely to occupy the depressions(kettles). Large angular boulders are found in terminal moraines.
  • The south Lhonak glacial lake is a classic example of moraine-dammed glacial lake.

WHAT IS GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD?

  • Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) is a type of flood that occurs when water dammed by a glacier, or a moraine is released.
  • When glaciers melt, the water in these glacial lakes accumulate behind loose, naturally formed ‘glacial/moraine dams’ made of ice, sand, pebbles and ice residue.
  • A catastrophic failure of the dam can release the water over periods of minutes to days causing extreme downstream flooding.
  • Peak flows as high as 15,000 cubic meters per second have been recorded in such events.

VULNERABILITY OF INDIA TO GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS

  • The Himalayan states of India sitting at the foothills of the Hindukush-Himalayan ranges are highly susceptible to disasters like Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).
  • There exist over 54,000 glaciers in the Third pole which are retreating at alarming rates due to temperature surges in the wake of Climate Change.
  • The average temperature in the region has increased by 0.28°C per decade between 1951 and 2020 which has hastened the glacial lake formation as well as the glacial retreat.
  • Scientific assessments and studies indicate the higher vulnerability of the Eastern Himalayas to GFOFs as compared to the Western Himalayan region, with the former facing twice the risks than the latter. This is attributed to the relatively warmer Eastern Himalayas. Further, it is contended that the threats would triple by 2050 with more hotspots emerging farther west.

EXAMPLES OF GLOFs FROM RECENT PAST

Past instances-

o   Chamoli floods, Uttarakhand (2021)- caused by melting of Nanda Devi glacier.

o   Kedarnath floods, Uttarakhand (2013)- triggered by the Chorabari lake outburst and consequent swelling of river Mandakini.

o   Himachal Floods (2005)- caused because of flash flooding by river Parechu.

Impending dangers-

o   Warning for Himachal Pradesh- The Gephang Gath Lake is awaiting GLOF similar to the recent Sikkim GLOF.

The lake is growing in its size rapidly. Adding to it, the local topography where it is located and the melting of permafrost have raised the apprehensions of breaking of the banks of this lake soon enough in coming future, which would cause large-scale flash floods in the state.

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS?

NATURAL CAUSES:

  • Nature of moraine-dammed lakes- The glacial moraines often form temporary glacial lakes and debris cones which are potential sources of associated flash floods.
    • As glaciers recede, they deposit large quantities of sediment – composed of an unstable combination of soil and rocks – in the upper regions of the Himalaya. In these circumstances, even a small amount of rainfall can dislodge boulders and debris and leave them to flow downstream.
  • Topography- The steep mountains, rock falls, debris flows under the impact of flowing glaciers and landslides are held responsible for breaching the glacial lake boundaries and triggering floods downstream.
  • Earthquakes- The Himalayan states of India fall within the seismic zones 4 and 5 which pose high risks to the glacial lakes. The thrusting of Indian plate under the Eurasian plate induces the earthquakes in the region, which trigger rock falls, landslides & breaking of glacial lakes and thus, causing ravaging flash floods.
  • Avalanches- Global heating is exacerbating the dangers from increased avalanches in the Himalayan Mountain ranges. The thawing of permafrost in steep mountain slopes can increase the likelihood of rockfalls and large rock avalanches that can enter a lake and trigger GLOFs. E.g. Rishiganga-Dhauliganga deluge in Chamoli (February 2021) due to ice-rock avalanche.

ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES:

  • Climate Change- The incidence and frequency of GLOFs is bound to increase in the wake of climate change. It increases the risks of such floods many-folds due to the following factors:
    • Rapidly retreating glaciers- A 2023 report by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) highlighted that the glaciers in the Hindukush-Himalayan region were rapidly retreating under the influence of unusually higher heating in the Third Pole than the global average. The South Lhonak Glacial Lake in the Upper Teesta Basin was found growing at an average aerial expansion of 0.03 square km per year. The warmer temperatures in the Northern parts of Sikkim gave rise to formation of 203 new glacial lakes.

    • Changing nature of Precipitation- The industrial releases of CO2 & other GHGs in the atmosphere have led to erratic rainfalls and changes in nature of precipitation in the Himalayan regions from snow to rain. The dry periods are increasing in the Eastern Himalayan region. Even a slightly higher rainfall than usual is likely to disturb the moraine dams and induce GLOFs.
    • Cloudbursts– As per the IPCC’s Special Report on Oceans & Cryosphere, a 2 °C global warming scenario could lead to a warming of around 2.7 °C in glaciated river basins. This is highly likely to increase incidences of cloudbursts in the Hindukush-Himalayan region because of intense convection conditions created as result. The recent Sikkim Floods due to breaking of Lhonak lake is manifestation of the impact of the rising cloudbursts.
  • Unsustainable development in Himalayan states & disregard to carrying capacity of the fragile ecosystem-
    • Hydroelectric projects- The thrust to hydroelectric power projects in areas of high altitudes and fragile ecology has compounded the threats from potential GLOFs. Although the issue of inadequate capacity of the Teesta 3 hydroelectric reservoir was raised during the public hearings conducted under the EIA, no alternative proposals were considered, and the project was given a green light.
    • Unscientific infrastructure creation- The construction and widening of roads & tunnels (such as the ongoing 45 km-long Sivok-Rangpo rail project in Sikkim), etc. in the ecologically sensitive mountain areas increase the geological stress on the already sensitive ecosystems and raise apprehensions of GLOFs. Apart from the dams, numerous pharmaceutical companies, smart city projects and congested urban planning are putting more pressure on the ecology.
    • Tourist load- The uptick in tourist load in the Himalayan states of India and destruction of natural vegetation from slopes and valleys, now painted with dense buildings, lodging and recreation facilities have increased the risks from disasters like GLOFs.

IMPLICATIONS OF GLOFs

The extent of damages from glacial lake outburst floods depends on the location of such glacial lakes, their size, population inhabiting valleys and the drainage basins, among many other factors. The implications of such floods are as stated below-

LOSS OF LIFE & FORCED DISPLACEMENTS

  • Depending on the severity of the disaster, the GLOFs have been noted to take a heavy toll on the life of humans and livestock.
  • More than 5000 people lost their lives during the Kedarnath floods (2013).
  • The loss of livelihood, damaged houses and property force displacements of the affected people.
  • Besides the tangible losses, the death of family members is a huge psychological loss for those who survived.

ECONOMIC LOSSES

Connectivity- The flash floods due to bursting of glacial dams/lakes cause caving in of roads and tunnels.

Agriculture- The engulfing of horticultural fields by fast-pacing floods, mudslides and landslides due to GLOFs causes huge losses to agriculture-dependent population of the affected areas.

Industries and Tourism- The collapsing buildings, damaged infrastructure and halted industrial activities in the wake of GLOFs increase the hardships for the locals. Tourism remains depressed even months and years after the disaster has taken place.

ENERGY CRISIS

The GLOFs damage the hydroelectric power plants situated in the mountains. For instance: the floodwaters from the South Lhonak glacial lake damaged the 1,200-MW Teesta-III hydel project at Chungthang.

ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES

The GLOFs and consequent landslides uproot the green cover, inundate the protected areas in the pathway of overflowing rivers and leads to loss of biodiversity.

The sedimentation due to GLOFs tends to disrupt the natural flow of rivers and harms the natural river chemistry.

The population of the affected areas also suffers from water crisis, thanks to the GLOFs and contamination of drinking water.

THE WAY FORWARD:

The following measures recommended by the NDMA guide the government and other stakeholders to mitigate the risks from rising instances of GLOFs-

  • Hazard mapping- To identify potentially dangerous lakes, one should ideally draw upon multiple sources of information, combining large-scale first order assessment results (including trans-boundary threats), with knowledge available from previous state level investigations and studies.

Global Best Practice- Switzerland

Hazard maps, according to the federal guidelines (Federal Flood Protection Law and the Federal Forest Law) express three degrees of danger, represented by corresponding colours: red, blue and yellow. This ensures homogeneous and uniform means of assessment of the different kinds of natural hazards affecting Switzerland. It guides the spatial planning and land-use policy in the country and has helped reduce casualties from such disasters.

  • Field investigations of glacial lakes including topographical and bathymetric mapping, hydro-meteorological observations, and surveys is imperative. NDMA has recommended use of Synthetic-Aperture Radar imagery to automatically detect changes in water bodies, including new lake formations, during the monsoon months.

  • Index-based approaches can be used by combining standardised indices for hazard, exposure, and vulnerability.
  • Advanced Early Warning System (EWS) and Timely Evacuation- Since GLOFs are very fast processes, an evacuation must be executed within a very short time, this requires a robust early warning and dissemination infrastructure, clear protocols for all involved actors, and capacitation of the involved population and responsible authorities.
  • Ramp up Himalayan Research- The need of the hour is to undertake more research in the Himalayas through robust implementation of initiatives such as the National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem to understand the sensitivity of the region.
  • Strengthen EIA framework- The scientific and sustainable planning of infrastructure in such disaster-prone regions can be ensured through reorientation of EIA framework in the country by strengthening the public hearing stage and ensuring responsiveness of authorities.
  • Hazard Reduction Options- Actions aiming at a reduction of the hazard typically involve structural measures at the glacial lake itself and thus aiming at a reduction of the outburst susceptibility or a reduction of the magnitude of a potential event. These methods include:
    • Lowering of the lake- Lowering the lake level by siphoning or pumping helps reduce the volume of the lake (and thus the potential flood volume and peak discharge) and increases the freeboard of the dam.
    • Retention basins, and/or deflection dams are the other structural measures which can help reduce risks from GLOFs.

Success Story of Peru- Reinforcing the dam with a stone facade provides protection against erosion and the initiation of a breach formation. Such measures have been successfully applied to more than 35 lakes in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru over the past seven decades.

  • Regulations on land use- Restricting constructions and development in GLOF/LLOF prone areas is a very efficient means to reduce risks at no cost. The construction of any habitation should be strictly prohibited in high-risk zones. Existing buildings are to be relocated to a safer nearby region and all the resources for the relocation have to be managed by Central/State governments.
  • Vulnerability Reduction- Capacity-building of local population, civil society organisations and SDMF/NDMF along with strengthened framework for insurance & compensation are the much-needed steps.
  • Set up National Centre for Glaciology: NDMA has strongly suggested the need to establish a single nodal agency to coordinate the cumulative effort to reduce such disaster in Indian Himalayan Region.

FRAGMENTED APPROACH IN INDIA TO MANAGE GLOFs in India as of now-

The survey and monitoring of glaciers are done by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), which is under the Ministry of Mines.

Scientific research is coordinated by the Department of Science and Technology; Climate change studies and impacts are the domain of the Environment Ministry; while rainfall and precipitation are monitored by the India Meteorological Department (IMD), which functions under the Earth Sciences Ministry.

The Central Water Commission works on the hydrology aspects; avalanches are monitored by an agency that is part of Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO); while remote sensing is being done by the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), which is a part of ISRO.

THE CONCLUSION- Climate change and ill-conceived development are expected to alter and potentially increase the probability for lake outbursts in the future posing potential threats in the downstream settlements. This underscores the need for a comprehensive Himalayan GLOF Mitigation Policy with a strong community-based and decentralised framework.

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q. Explain the mechanism and occurrence of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Indian Himalayan Region. Give two recent examples.

Q. Describe the various causes and implications of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the country. Also, suggest the mitigation measures that are necessary to reduce the risks associated.

Q. The frequency of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) is increasing every year in Indian subcontinent. Discuss the causes and highlight the mechanisms suggested by NDMA to mitigate risks from such disasters.




TOPIC: THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR ECONOMICS, 2023

THE CONTEXT: Recently, the Nobel Prize in Economics for 2023 has been awarded to Claudia Goldin, for her comprehensive research on women’s contribution to the labour market. This article analyses the significance of the research, its implications and the issues faced by women in the labour market from the UPSC PERSPECTIVE.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE NOBEL PRIZE IN ECONOMICS, 2023

  • The Nobel prize has been awarded for the research that has advanced the understanding of the gender gap in the labour market. It has provided “the first comprehensive account of women’s earnings and labour market participation through the centuries.
  • The work has challenged the belief that women’s labour force participation always increased with economic growth. The work looked at the historical data spanning 200 years and found that women’s involvement in economic activities varied.
  • It is revealed that there is a U-shaped curve in female labour force participation over time, influenced by structural changes and evolving social norms.
  • The reason was change in the education of females relative to males as educational resource constraints. Before industrialisation, more women worked in agriculture and cottage industries. With industrialisation, work shifted to factories, limiting women’s opportunities to work outside their homes.

  • Research also explores the reasons behind the gender wage gap using data concerning the last 200 years. It reveals the causes of change, as well as the main sources of the remaining gender gap. While the research focused on the US, the findings are applicable to many other countries.
  • According to research, women are vastly underrepresented in the global labour market and demonstrated the gender differences in employment rates and earnings despite modernisation, economic growth and rising proportions of employed women in the twentieth century.

AN OVERVIEW OF INDIAN SOCIO-ECONOMIC SCENARIO

  • Since Independence in 1947, India took long steps towards the progress of the nation. The concerted and coordinated efforts of governments through various Five Year Plans have changed the economic scenario of the country considerably.
  • Agriculture production has risen steadily, and progress of industrialization has increasingly played a role in India’s economic development.
  • Various factors, such as the level of literacy, female education, nutritional standards, and income distribution, contribute to the striking variations among regions and people.
  • Despite the development, it is the gender bias that still exists at every social strata, even in the most educated and developed society.
  • Currently, the participation of women in the workforce in India is one of the lowest globally. The labour force participation rate (LFPR) among women with secondary education or higher was 29.2%, less than half that of their male peers (73.1%), as per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) report for 2022-23.
  • Most women in India are engaged in subsistence-level work in agriculture in rural areas and in low-paying jobs such as domestic service and petty home-based manufacturing in urban areas.

WOMEN’S ROLE IN AGRARIAN AND INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN INDIA

WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE

  • The agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women and they comprise 33% of the agricultural labour force and 48% of self-employed farmers.
  • The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) research revealed that the participation of women is 75% in the production of major crops, 79% in horticulture, 51% in post-harvest work and 95% in animal husbandry and fisheries.
  • The All India Report of Agriculture Census (2015-16) shows that the total number of operational holdings in the country increased from 138.35 million in 2010-11 to 146.45 million in 2015-16, showing an increase of 5.86 per cent.
  • Male operational holdings (excluding institutional) constituted 86.0 per cent while female holdings were 14.0 per cent in 2015-16 against 87.2 per cent and 12.8 per cent respectively in 2010-11. This data indicates the rising participation of females in the management and/or operation of agricultural holdings in the country.

WOMEN IN INDUSTRIES

  • Data from the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) shows, of the 8 million workers employed in India’s formal manufacturing industries in 2019-20, 1.6 million (19.7%) were women and this share has remained largely unchanged for over two decades.
  • Among the five most industrialised states, the picture is mixed  with Maharashtra (12%), Uttar Pradesh (5.7%) and Gujarat (6.8%) having large gender gaps and Tamil Nadu (40.4 %) and Andhra Pradesh (30.2%) faring much better. Women’s share among industrial employees was less than 10% in 16 states and Union territories.
  • Apart from that, Women workers are concentrated in a handful of industries. An industry-wide analysis of female employment from ASI 2019-20 shows a skewed gender workforce across most industries.
  • There are also highest gender wage gaps across sectors in the country. Much of this wage gap is unexplained by gender-specific differences in education, occupation, or age/marital profiles, pointing to potential discrimination.

WOMEN IN INDIA’S SERVICES SECTOR

  • In the early 20th century, the growth of the services sector played a pivotal role in women’s access to higher education and employment opportunities. This sector offered more opportunities for women to enter the workforce.
  • Overall, data suggest that access to higher education increases mobility and widens the scope for economic opportunity, leading to jobs and financial empowerment for women.
  • The IT sector is considered the largest employer of the country’s white-collar workforce and has the highest representation of women in the workforce.
  • The Indian IT sector has witnessed a significant increase in the number of women employees over the past decade. Currently, over 20 lakh women are employed in the sector, accounting for 36% of the total workforce.
  • This growth can be attributed to various factors such as progressive policies, increased availability of computer science courses, visible examples of women in leadership roles, and policy frameworks enabling women to work night shifts.

ISSUES FOR WOMEN WORKFORCE IN INDIA

MARITAL AND SOCIETAL CONSTRAINTS IN INDIA

  • The Nobel prize research work found that by the beginning of the 20th century, while around 20 per cent of women were gainfully employed, the share of married women was only five per cent.
  • The research noted that legislation known as “marriage bars” often prevented married women from continuing their employment as teachers or office workers.
  • Another issue is of societal expectation based that doesnot expect women to take a long, uninterrupted, and fruitful career and have a career as long as the independence of women does not threaten the existing socio-moral order.
  • As per a report by NFHS, only 32% of married women are employed in India right now and around 15 per cent of the women who are working are not paid at all. (This percentage for men is just 4 percent.)

TRADITIONAL ROLES VS. MODERN ASPIRATIONS

  • The research noted that a female’s educational choices, which are made at a relatively young age, are influenced by the experiences of females of previous generations.
  • Traditionally, it has been observed that women tend to have lower career aspirations as compared to men in regards to professional careers in view of their traditional gender role attitudes that attached the role of earning livelihood solely to the men in the house.
  • Women, hence, are allowed to be modern only until their idea of modernity is limited to ‘looking modern’. Herein comes the idea of “a modern woman rooted in tradition”. This “superwoman” character is a working professional who manages to take care of the household as well as look after her children, all by herself. They are under the constant pressure to strike a balance between households and career.

GENDER-SPECIFIC JOB ROLES

  • There is a general consensus in managerial and sociological research that certain occupations are gendered. For example, public relations, nursing, and teaching are considered “female-gendered” occupations, whereas stock trading, engineering, and construction are considered “male-gendered” occupations.
  • STEM fields are often viewed as masculine, and teachers and parents often underestimate girl’s abilities in STEM starting as early as preschool.
  • Gender roles and the pressures to conform to these roles for women vary across regions, religions and households.

PARENTHOOD AND GENDER PAY GAP IN INDIA

  • The research compares the income and wage trajectories of women to those of their male partners before and after parenthood.
  • As women had to shoulder more of the parenting responsibilities, they were punished for this at the work front in terms of a slower rise on the pay scale.
  • While historically, the earnings difference between men and women could be blamed on educational choices made at a young age and career choices, the research found that the current earnings gap was now largely due to the impact of having children.
  • For working mothers, societal expectations continue to define their expected roles and responsibilities, making it challenging to navigate the demands of career and family life. Many women find themselves torn between fulfilling their professional aspirations and meeting social ideals of motherhood.
  • There are issues of insufficient Maternity Leave during child-rearing years, the unemployment penalty for women is longer. This means that when women take longer leaves, they have a much harder time getting rehired.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR WOMEN LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION

In India, the government has come up with several initiatives for improving opportunities for women workforce. Some of them are mentioned below:

  • Article 39 of our constitution directs that States shall, in particular, have policies towards securing equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
  • Acts for equal wages: The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides for payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers for same work or work of similar nature without any discrimination. Further, under the provisions of the Minimum Wages Act, 1948, the wages fixed by the appropriate Government are equally applicable to both male and female workers and the Act does not discriminate on the basis of gender.
  • Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013: The POSH Act is a legislation enacted in 2013 to address the issue of sexual harassment faced by women in the workplace. The Act aims to create a safe and conducive work environment for women and provide protection against sexual harassment.
  • Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: It provides for enhancement in paid maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks and provisions for mandatory crèche facility in the establishments having 50 or more employees.
  • The Factories Act, 1948: The Factories Act is a legislation to secure to the workers employed in a factory, health, safety, welfare, proper working hours, leave and other benefits. The Factories Act also has exclusive provisions for women workers.
  • Mission Shakti: It is an integrated women empowerment programme launched as an umbrella scheme for the safety, security and empowerment of women to increase their participation in workforce. It has included the existing schemes of National Creche Scheme for children of working mothers and Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) for holistic development of women.

Further, in order to enhance the employability of female workers, the Government is providing training to them through a network of Women Industrial Training institutes, National Vocational Training Institutes and Regional Vocational Training Institutes. A number of protective provisions have been incorporated in various labour laws for creating congenial work environment for women workers.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Reforms in laws: There is need for legal reforms affecting women’s pay, laws affecting women’s work after having children, constraints on women starting and running a business, gender differences in property and inheritance. It’s necessary to improve legal equality for keeping the rights of women workforce intact. Major regulations for equal remuneration for work of equal value, allowing women to work at night and in an industrial job in the same way as men, etc need to be implemented.
  • Family planning: Investments in family planning and women’s reproductive health yield large benefits for women, children, and entire Even the research has highlighted the role of contraceptive pills. Women’s access to sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) often manifests in higher maternal ages at first birth, lower fertility, and longer birth spacing. This is important for women’s health and the economy, leading to lower costs for health systems as well as increased LFP, educational attainment, and lifetime earnings for women
  • Impact of research: The research for which Nobel prize is awarded can be applied in making the Government policies more gender sensitive. It can also be used to design special policies for women employment. As the research has provided significant insights on the status, role and participation of women in the workforce, it provides sufficient data about underlying barriers hindering women employment.
  • Global Relevance: Gender inequality in the workplace is not limited to one country but rather, it is a global issue. The Nobel Prize research has implications beyond the United States, as gender disparities exist worldwide. The work contributes to the international dialogue on gender economics and need to address gender gap in labour economy worldwide.
  • Gender Equality and Rights: There is a need to enhance women’s ability to participate equally and help to access decent work which promotes meaningful participation in economic decision-making. It can help achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development i.e Goal 5: to achieve gender equality, Goal 8: to promote full and productive employment and Goal 10: reducing inequalities.

THE CONCLUSION: Empowering the women in the workforce is not only essential for economic growth but also aligns with global goals of gender equality. Greater gender equality can enhance economic productivity, improve development outcomes for the next generation, and make institutions and policies more representative.

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Discuss how the recognition by the Nobel committee brings global attention to the issues faced by women in the workforce. How can India leverage this attention and bring about systemic changes to address gender disparities in the workforce?

Q.2 How marriage and parenthood influence women’s career decisions in India? Discuss this in the context of traditional vs modern aspirations. Suggest measures to address the issue.




TOPIC: THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY (MEDICINE) 2023

THE CONTEXT: The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman “for their discoveries concerning base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19”. This article explains in detail the various aspects of the work of these Nobel laureates from the UPSC perspective.

THE NOBEL LAUREATES

The Nobel Laureates

  • Katalin Kariko (Hungary):University of Pennsylvania, USA
  • Drew Weissman (USA): University of Pennsylvania, USA

NOBEL LAUREATES IN THE FIELD OF PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE

Research on Unmodified mRNA and Base – modified mRNA

Vaccines before the pandemic:

  • Vaccination stimulates the formation of an immune response to a particular pathogen.
  • This gives the body a head starts in the fight against disease in the event of a later exposure.
  • Vaccines based on killed or weakened viruses have long been available, exemplified by the vaccines against polio, measles, and yellow fever.
  • In 1951, Max Theiler was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for developing the yellow fever vaccine.

Producing protein-, vector-, or whole virus- was time consuming as they require large-scale cell culture.

Vaccines after the COVID-19 pandemic: mRNA vaccines

  • The basis for these vaccines is messenger RNA, or mRNA. The messenger RNA molecules that instruct the body’s cells to produce certain proteins are used in mRNA vaccines.
  • The mRNA vaccines are being developed to protect against other respiratory infections, such as influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and metapneumovirus.
  • The mRNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective against COVID-19, preventing serious illness, hospitalization, and death.

ABOUT THE mRNA VACCINES

  • The mRNA is a molecule that carries instructions from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are made. mRNA vaccines work by delivering mRNA molecules into cells.
  • The mRNA molecules are then translated into proteins, which are displayed on the surface of the cell. The immune system then recognizes the proteins as foreign and produces antibodies and other immune cells against them.
  • If the body is later infected with the pathogen that the vaccine is targeting, the immune system will be able to quickly recognize and destroy the pathogen.

HOW ARE THESE VACCINES DIFFERENT (mRNA VS. DNA)?

WHAT DID KATALIN KARIKÓ AND DREW WEISSMAN DISCOVER?

In 2023, Kariko and Weissman were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their groundbreaking work on mRNA. Their discovery is one of the most important scientific advances in the world, and it has the potential to revolutionize the way we prevent and treat diseases in the ecosystem. Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman’s discovery of how to modify mRNA to make it more stable and less inflammatory was a critical breakthrough in the development of mRNA vaccines. Their work has had a profound impact on the world, and it has the potential to revolutionize the way we prevent and treat diseases.

Their Discovery:

  • Unmodified mRNA is unstable and inflammatory. When unmodified mRNA is injected into the body, it is quickly degraded by enzymes and can trigger an inflammatory response.
  • Karikó and Weissman discovered that modifying a single nucleotide in mRNA could make it much more stable and less inflammatory. This modification, known as pseudouridylation, reduces the recognition of mRNA by the body’s immune system and prevents the inflammatory response.
  • Their discovery made it possible to develop safe and effective the mRNA vaccines. The mRNA vaccines can be used to deliver instructions to cells to produce proteins that can protect against infection or disease.

Karikó and Weissman’s work has had a number of important applications, including:

  • The development of mRNA vaccines against COVID-19. The mRNA vaccines have played a critical role in the fight against COVID-19, and they are now widely used to protect people from the virus.
  • The development of the mRNA vaccines against other diseases. The mRNA vaccines are currently being developed to protect against a wide range of other diseases, including malaria, cancer, and HIV.
  • The development of mRNA therapies. mRNA can also be used to deliver instructions to cells to produce proteins that can treat diseases. For example, mRNA therapies are being developed to treat cancer and genetic disorders.

THE BREAKTHROUGH

The breakthrough of the mRNA is a major scientific achievement that has the potential to revolutionize medicine. The mRNA vaccines are a new type of vaccine that uses messenger RNA (mRNA) to teach the body how to make proteins that can trigger an immune response. This makes it possible to develop vaccines against a wide range of diseases, including those that are difficult to vaccinate against using traditional methods. The mRNA vaccines are also very fast to develop, which makes them ideal for responding to new and emerging threats. For example, the mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 were developed in past record 2020.

The breakthroughs that have made the mRNA vaccines possible:

  • The discovery of how to modify mRNA to make it more stable and less inflammatory. This was essential for developing safe and effective mRNA vaccines.
  • The development of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to deliver mRNA to cells.
  • LNPs are tiny fat particles that can protect the mRNA from degradation and help it to enter cells.
  • The development of efficient methods for manufacturing mRNA in large quantities. This has made it possible to produce mRNA vaccines on a scale that is needed to vaccinate millions of people.

The breakthrough of mRNA is a testament to the power of scientific research and innovation. It has opened up new possibilities for preventing and treating diseases, and it has the potential to save millions of lives.

APPLICATION OF BASE-MODIFIED mRNA VACCINES

Base-modified mRNA vaccines are a new type of mRNA vaccine that uses modified mRNA nucleosides to improve the stability, safety, and efficacy of the vaccine. Modified mRNA nucleosides are synthetic nucleotides that have been chemically modified to alter their properties.

Base-modified mRNA vaccines have a number of potential advantages over traditional mRNA vaccines:

  • Increased stability:Modified mRNA nucleosides are more resistant to degradation than unmodified mRNA nucleosides. This means that base-modified mRNA vaccines can be stored for longer periods of time and can be delivered to the body using a wider range of delivery methods.
  • Reduced immunogenicity:Modified mRNA nucleosides are less likely to trigger an immune response than unmodified mRNA nucleosides. This reduces the risk of side effects and allows for repeat dosing.
  • Increased efficacy:Modified mRNA nucleosides can improve the translation of mRNA into proteins. This means that base-modified mRNA vaccines can produce a stronger immune response.

Base-modified mRNA vaccines are still in the early stages of development, but they have the potential to be used to develop vaccines against a wide range of diseases, including:

  • Infectious diseases: Base-modified mRNA vaccines are being developed to protect against infectious diseases such as COVID-19, influenza, malaria, and HIV.
  • Cancer:Base-modified mRNA vaccines are being developed to treat cancer by targeting tumor-specific antigens.
  • Rare diseases:Base-modified mRNA vaccines are being developed to treat rare diseases caused by genetic mutations.

Some specific examples of mRNA vaccines that are currently in development for use after the COVID-19 pandemic:

  • Moderna:Moderna is developing mRNA vaccines for influenza, RSV, HIV, and cancer.
  • Pfizer-BioNTech:Pfizer-BioNTech is developing mRNA vaccines for influenza, RSV, malaria, and shingles.
  • CureVac:CureVac is developing mRNA vaccines for influenza, rabies, and Zika virus.
  • Arcturus Therapeutics:Arcturus Therapeutics is developing mRNA vaccines for COVID-19 variants, influenza, and RSV.

Base-modified mRNA vaccines are a promising new technology with the potential to revolutionize the way we prevent and treat diseases. As base-modified mRNA vaccine technology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative and effective vaccines against a wide range of diseases.

WHAT ARE mRNA VACCINES AND HOW DO THEY WORK?

The mRNA vaccines are a new type of vaccines that use messenger RNA (mRNA) to teach the body how to make proteins that can help in immunity system. mRNA is a molecule that carries instructions from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are made.

How mRNA vaccines work?

  1. An mRNA vaccine is injected into the body.
  2. The mRNA enters cells and is translated into proteins.
  3. The proteins are displayed on the surface of the cell.
  4. The immune system recognizes the proteins as foreign and produces antibodies and other immune cells against them.
  5. If the body is infected with the pathogen that the vaccine is targeting, the immune system will be able to quickly recognize and destroy the pathogen.

The mRNA vaccines have a number of advantages over traditional vaccines:

  • They are very fast to develop, because they do not require the cultivation of live viruses or bacteria.
  • They can be easily modified to target different pathogens, making them a versatile platform for developing vaccines against new and emerging threats.
  • They are generally very safe, with mild side effects being the most common.
  • They have been shown to be highly effective against COVID-19, preventing serious illness, hospitalization, and death.

SIGNIFICANCE THE DISCOVERY OF mRNA VACCINES

The significance of the Nobel Prize awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for their contributions to mRNA vaccines is multi-faceted and has wide-ranging implications. The significance of their work:

RECOGNITION OF PIONEERING MRNA RESEARCH

  • The groundbreaking discoveries in using modified nucleosides in synthetic mRNA can lay the foundation for mRNA vaccine technology.

REVOLUTION IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT

  • The Nobel Prize underscores the revolutionary impact of mRNA vaccines on the field of vaccinology. These vaccines represent a paradigm shift, offering a faster and more adaptable approach to vaccine development.

GLOBAL HEALTH IMPACT

  • The award acknowledges the role of mRNA vaccines in addressing the global COVID-19 pandemic. mRNA vaccines like Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna have been instrumental in controlling the spread of the virus.

COLLABORATION AND INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE

  • It highlights the collaborative efforts of scientists from different backgrounds and countries. Their collaboration underscores the importance of international cooperation and interdisciplinary research in addressing global health challenges.

INSPIRATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

  • It reinforces the importance of perseverance and long-term commitment to scientific endeavors.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIETAL IMPACT

  • The significance of mRNA vaccines extends beyond science and has social and economic ramifications in terms of vaccine manufacturing, distribution, and access.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

  • It underscores the importance of investing in scientific research and education to drive medical advancements and address global health challenges effectively

THE CONCLUSION: The Nobel Prize awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for their contributions to mRNA vaccines is significant role in future. This is because it not only recognizes their individual and collaborative achievements but also highlights the transformative impact of mRNA vaccine technology on public health, global disease control, and the future of medical research and development. Thanks to the progress in molecular biology in recent decades, vaccines based on individual viral components, rather than whole viruses, have been developed.

UPSC PERSPECTIVE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Recent breakthroughs in mRNA technology have revolutionized the fields ranging from vaccines to therapeutics. Discuss the significance of these advancements.

Q.2 What is mRNA technology? Discuss the challenges and ethical considerations associated with the use of mRNA. How can India harness this technology for public health and scientific advancement?

UPSC Civil Services Examination (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (2022)

1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.

2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector-based platform.

3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a)    1 and 2 only

(b)    2 and 3 only

(c)    1 and 3 only

(d)    1, 2 and 3

Answer: B

Mains

Q.1 What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines? (2022)




TOPIC: THE DEBATE OVER THE WOMEN’S RESERVATION IN THE INDIAN PARLIAMENT

THE CONTEXT: In September 2023, the Parliament passed the historic Constitution (One Hundred and sixth Amendment) Bill also known as the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam. This Bill aims to reserve 33% of seats in the Lok Sabha, State Assemblies and the National Capital Territory of Delhi for women. The following article attempts to analyse this Bill(Now Act) and its repercussions on the Indian socio-political scene from UPSC perspective.

KEY ASPECTS OF THE 106TH CAA, 2023

The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023 suggests modifying a single constitutional provision, Article 239AA, and adding three new articles: Articles 330A, 332A, and 334A.

Article 239AA (Amended)

  • Article 239AA to the constitution grants special status to the Union Territory of Delhi as national capital with regards to its administrative and legislative functioning.
  • Article 239AA(2)(b) was amended by the Act accordingly to add that the laws framed by parliament shall apply to the National Capital territory of Delhi.

Articles 330A

  • The Act provided that reserved seats for women may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in states or Union Territories for representation in the Lok Sabha.
  • In the seats reserved for SCs/STs, the Act sought to provide one-third of the seats to be reserved for women on rotational basis.

Articles 332A

  • The reservation of seats for women in every state Legislative Assembly.
  • Additionally, one-third of the seats reserved for SCs and STs must be allocated for women, and one-third of the total seats filled through direct elections to the Legislative Assemblies shall also be reserved for women (Article 332).

Articles 334A

  • The reservation will be effective after the census conducted after the commencement of this Act.
  • Based on the census, delimitation will be undertaken to reserve seats for women.
  • The reservation will be provided for a period of 15 years (Sunset Clause).
  • However, it shall continue till such date as determined by a law made by Parliament.
  • Provisions of this act shall not affect any representation in legislative assemblies and the Lok Sabha until their dissolution.

TRACING THE EVOLUTION OF RESERVATION FOR WOMEN IN LEGISLATURES

WHAT ARE THE ISSUES IN THE NARI SHAKTI VANDAN ADHINIYAM, 2023?

DELAYED IMPLEMENTATION AND ROTATIONAL MEMBERSHIP

  • The Opposition has expressed concerns about linking the implementation of women’s reservation to the periodic delimitation exercise, which could cause significant delays in the quota’s enforcement.
  • The decennial Census, originally scheduled for 2021 but delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, is yet to be conducted. This implies that the implementation of women’s reservation will likely be postponed for several years.
  • The act provides for rotation of seats after every delimitation exercise as against after every general election to the Parliament/ State legislative assemblies.

OVERLOOKING WOMEN FROM OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES (OBCs)

  • While there is reserved representation for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, there isn’t a distinct reservation for OBCs, who constitute over 40% of the population.
  • Two Lok Sabha members, Asaduddin Owaisi and Syed Imtiyaz Jaleel of the AIMIM, opposed the Bill because they felt it should include separate quotas for OBC and Muslim women, as both communities are underrepresented in Parliament and Legislative Assemblies.

AGAINST EQUALITY

  • Idea of reservation runs counter to the principle of equality enshrined in the Constitution (Article 15), as women may not be competing on merit.
  • There also is a concern that women who are nominated purely because of the reservation might not be as experienced or qualified as other candidates.

INSTRUMENTALIZATION OF WOMEN

  • There’s a risk of women being used as political pawns, with male relatives or party leaders pulling the strings behind the scenes.
  • In such cases, women may not have genuine agency and authority in decision-making.

LESS IMPACT ON POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

  • There are larger issues of electoral reforms such as criminalization of politics, internal democracy in political parties, etc., that might act as an impediment to political empowerment of women.
  • Further, India has ranked 127th/146 in the recent gender inequality index. India’s neighbours Pakistan ranked at 142, Bangladesh at 59, China at 107, Nepal at 116, Sri Lanka at 115 and Bhutan at 103. This shows mere Parliamentary representation may not completely change ground realities for women.

DISPARITY ACROSS STATES

  • The act provides for reservation of 1/3rd seats across all Lok Sabha seats as against provision of reserving 1/3rd seat in each State/UT as mentioned in 2008 bill.

RESERVATION IN RAJYA SABHA AND LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS

  • The Act does not contain any provision for reservation for women in Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils of the States.
  • The Geeta Mukherjee Committee (1996) recommended providing reservation for women in Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils as well.

DELIMITATION

Delimitation involves adjusting the boundaries and number of seats in legislative bodies based on the latest Census data. The last delimitation order by the Delimitation Commission was issued in 2008, defining constituency boundaries. However, there’s currently a freeze on altering the number of seats in State Assemblies and the Lok Sabha. In 2002, Article 82 was amended to postpone the necessity of reallocating Lok Sabha constituencies and State divisions until after the 2026 Census.

WHY SHOULD INDIA GIVE RESERVATION FOR WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT?

Countries like India have compelling reasons to implement reservations for women in Parliament to promote gender equality and address historical and structural disparities. Here are some key arguments in favor of providing reservations for women in parliamentary seats:

GENDER EQUALITY

  • One of the primary reasons for women’s reservation in Parliament is to rectify historical gender imbalances in political representation.
  • Women have been traditionally underrepresented in politics, and reservations aim to correct this inequality.

POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT

  • Women’s reservation empowers women to actively participate in decision-making processes and influence public policies.
  • It ensures that women’s voices and perspectives are heard and considered in political discourse.

DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES

  • Greater gender diversity in Parliament results in a broader range of perspectives on issues like health, education, and social welfare. This can lead to more holistic and effective policymaking.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

  • Reservations for women can help address societal injustices and promote gender equity by offering opportunities to marginalized and underprivileged women who may not otherwise have access to political power.

ROLE MODELS

  • Women in leadership positions serve as role models for younger generations, encouraging girls to aspire to political careers and breaking down gender stereotypes.

LEGAL PROTECTIONS

  • Women in Parliament can advocate for and enact legislation that promotes women’s rights, safety, and welfare, addressing issues like domestic violence, workplace harassment, and gender discrimination.

INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS

  • Many countries have international obligations to promote gender equality, as per agreements like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Women’s reservation policies help fulfill these obligations.
  • India is a signatory to Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). The treaty was signed on 30th July, 1980 and was ratified on 9th July, 1993.

WOMEN HIGHLY UNDERREPRESENTED IN THE PARLIAMENT

  • While the percentage of women MPs in India has increased from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to 15% in the 17th Lok Sabha, it remains relatively low.
  • While countries like Rwanda have about 60 percent women in the Parliament, the percentage of women representatives in the Indian Parliament hovers around a mere 15 percent in Lok Sabha and 14 percent in Rajya Sabha, while they constitute about half of India’s total populace.

While reservations for women in Parliament have generated debate and discussion, proponents argue that they are a necessary step to address long-standing gender disparities and ensure a more equitable and inclusive political system.

PROPONENTS AND OPPONENTS FOR RESERVATIONS FOR WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT

PROPONENTS

  • Addressing Underrepresentation: Women’s reservations are seen as a necessary measure to address the historical underrepresentation of women in politics, ensuring that their voices are heard and their concerns are addressed.
  • Promoting Gender Equality: Reservations promote gender equality, which is not only a fundamental human right but also essential for a just and equitable society.
  • Diverse Perspectives: A more diverse representation in Parliament ensures that a broader range of perspectives is considered in policymaking, which can lead to more comprehensive and effective governance.
  • Impact on Public Goods: Studies have shown that women elected under reservation policies tend to invest more in public goods closely linked to women’s concerns, such as education and healthcare.
  • Eliminating Discrimination: International agreements, such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, call for the elimination of discrimination against women in political and public life, and reservations can be a means to fulfill these obligations.
  • Positive Outcomes in Local Governance: Reservation policies for women at the local level have been found to enable women to make meaningful contributions to governance, and concerns about women being proxies to men have not materialized.
  • Global Perspective: Many countries have successfully implemented women’s reservation policies and quotas, reflecting a global trend in promoting gender equity in politics.

OPPONENTS

  • Narrow Outlook: Some opponents argue that women’s reservations may lead to a narrow outlook as women may be seen as not competing on merit but rather through a separate constituency.

o For example, during the Constituent Assembly discussions, Renuka Ray (Member of the Lok Sabha (1957–1967)) argued against reserving seats for women, stating that women would have more opportunities if their consideration was solely based on their competence.

  • Perpetuating Unequal Status: Critics argue that such reservations could perpetuate unequal status, as women might be viewed as not being able to compete in general constituencies on their merit alone.
  • Issues with rotational representation: The rotation of reserved constituencies in each election could reduce the incentive of an MP to work for their constituency, as they may become ineligible to seek re-election from that same constituency.
  • Larger Electoral Issues: Opponents emphasize that larger issues affecting the political system, such as criminalization of politics, internal party democracy, and financial transparency, have not been adequately addressed by these reservations.
  • Not All Women Benefit: Some argue that the benefits of reservations primarily accrue to women from privileged backgrounds, leaving out marginalized and underprivileged women.

THE WAY FORWARD

AMBEDKAR’S VISION FOR INCLUSIVITY

  • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian Constitution, stressed the importance of social justice and inclusivity. In the spirit of Ambedkar’s vision, reservations for women can be seen as a means to ensure equal political participation for a historically marginalized group.

RESERVATION BASED ON INCLUSIVE OUTCOMES FOR THE SOCIETY

  • A parliamentary committee in 2009 noted that reserving seats for women in local bodies has enabled them to make significant contributions and dispelled concerns about women merely being proxies for men.
  • A 2010 study by the Harvard Kennedy School also showed that female representation in village councils increased female participation and responsiveness to concerns such as drinking water, infrastructure, sanitation and roads.
  • Thus, reserving seats for woman in the Parliament is definitely a game changer in the process of women empowerment.

INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS

  • The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), to which India is a signatory, obliges the country to eliminate gender discrimination in political life. Reservations for women align with this international commitment. Thus, the Indian government must ensure that this law fructifies efficiently at ground.

GEETA MUKHERJEE COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS

  • Recommendations of the Geetha Mukherjee Committee must be implemented which include reservations given in the Rajya Sabha and the state Legislative Council.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS

  • Comparative analysis with countries that have successfully implemented women’s reservations, like Rwanda and Nordic countries, highlights the positive outcomes in terms of gender equality and women’s welfare.

POLITICAL PARTY REFORMS

  • While women’s reservations are crucial, broader electoral and political party reforms are equally important.
  • Addressing issues like criminalization in politics, ensuring internal democracy within parties, and curbing the influence of black money can create a more conducive environment for women to thrive in politics.

THE CONCLUSION: The issue of women’s reservation in the Indian Parliament resonates deeply with philosophical principles of justice, equality, and democracy. In a nation that aspires to be a beacon of democratic values, this question is not merely about increasing numbers; it is a matter of upholding the very essence of democracy and social justice. The idea of equal participation in decision-making processes is a cornerstone of democracy. It aligns with John Rawls’ “difference principle,” which posits that inequalities are justifiable only if they benefit the least advantaged. Reserving seats for women recognize the historical disadvantage faced by women in politics and society at large and seeks to rectify this inequity.

QUESTIONS:

Q 1. Discuss the historical evolution of women’s reservation in the Indian Parliament. What are the key challenges and prospects associated with its implementation?

Q 2. How far do you agree with the view that the 106th CAA is a truly transformative intervention towards making the Indian political democracy engendered?

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Key changes between 2008 Bill and Bill introduced in 2023

  Bill introduced in 2008 as passed by Rajya Sabha Bill introduced in 2023
Reservation in Lok Sabha One-third of Lok Sabha seats in each state/UT to be reserved for women One-third seats to be reserved for women
Rotation of Seats Reserved seats to be rotated after every general election to Parliament/legislative assembly Reserved seats to be rotated after every delimitation exercise

GEETA MUKHERJEE COMMITTEE

The Geeta Mukherjee Committee, formed in 1996 to study and make recommendations on the Women’s Reservation Bill, proposed several key recommendations to address the issue of women’s reservation in Indian politics. These recommendations were aimed at ensuring greater political representation for women. Here are some of the key recommendations made by the Geeta Mukherjee Committee:

  • 33% Reservation: The committee recommended the reservation of 33% of seats for women in both the Lok Sabha (the lower house of India’s Parliament) and state legislative assemblies. This reservation would have applied to both general and reserved constituencies. It also advocated reservation for women in the Rajya Sabha as well as the State Legislative Councils.
  • Rotation of Reserved Seats: To ensure equitable representation, the committee suggested the rotation of reserved seats for women in successive elections. This means that different constituencies would be reserved for women in different election cycles.
  • Reservation for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST): The committee proposed that out of the reserved seats for women, one-third should be further reserved for women from SC and ST communities. This aimed to address the dual disadvantage faced by women from these marginalized groups.
  • Reservation for Anglo-Indian Community: The committee suggested the continuation of reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies. This was aimed at safeguarding the interests of this minority community.
  • Two-Child Norm: The committee recommended that persons with more than two living children should be ineligible to contest the elections under the women’s reservation provision. This recommendation aimed to encourage family planning.
  • Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections: The committee suggested the introduction of a sub-quota within the women’s reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS).



TOPIC – A NEW REGIME IN MALDIVES AND THE FUTURE OF INDIA-MALDIVES RELATIONS

THE CONTEXT: Historically, India has maintained a significant influence in the Maldives due to geographical proximity, shared cultural ties, and common interests in regional stability. However, the political leadership in Maldives has been see-sawing time and again either into the ‘India first’ faction, or the ‘India out’ faction. The current President-elect Mohamed Muizzu has again dispersed his inclination towards the ‘India out’ narrative, leaving ample space for India to ponder about future bilateral diplomacy. The following article attempts to analyse the contemporary India-Maldives relations along with prospects from the UPSC perspective.

CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS AFTER ELECTIONS

  • 2023 elections: Mohamed Muizzu, alleged to favour China has been elected as President, thus raising concerns for India.
  • Mohamed Muizzu had declared that if elected, he would follow the India first policy traditionally practiced by governments of Maldives, but will not allow the crossing of limits. Muizzu immediately contrasted his intent post electoral victory by saying, “We will send back foreign soldiers in the Maldives”. Although he didn’t name any country, this is said to point at Indian forces stationed in Maldives.
  • Also, at the request of President-elect Muizzu, former President Solih agreed to shift former President Yameen from prison to house arrest. Mr. Yameen is serving a long sentence (11 years) for corruption. He is seen as Mr. Muizzu’s mentor. This is of significant concern to India as Mr. Yameen already promoted the ‘India out’ campaign.

WHY IS MALDIVES IMPORTANT FOR INDIA?

Strategic Location

  • The Maldives is strategically located in the Indian Ocean, which is of immense geostrategic importance to India.
  • It serves as a key maritime neighbor, and its proximity to important Indian ports in the southern states of India, such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu, makes it a critical component of India’s maritime security.
  • Further, Maldives is crucial to secure free flow of trade in Indian Ocean region.

Maritime Security:

  • The Maldives’ exclusive economic zone (EEZ) overlaps with important sea lanes of communication (SLOCs) used for the transportation of goods, energy resources, and military traffic.
  • India and the Maldives cooperate closely to ensure the security of these vital SLOCs, which are crucial for India’s economic and strategic interests.
  • 50% of India’s external trade and 80% of our energy imports transit through the Sea lanes of communication (SLOCs) in the vicinity of the Maldives.

Counter terrorism and Anti-Piracy

  • The Maldives has faced challenges related to extremism and piracy in its waters. India collaborates with the Maldives in counter terrorism efforts and anti-piracy operations, which contribute to regional security in the Indian Ocean.

Regional Stability

  • The stability and security of the Indian Ocean region are paramount for India. Any disturbances or conflicts in the region can directly impact India’s national security.
  • The Maldives’ stability and cooperative relations with India contribute to regional peace and security.
  • Also, Maldives holds an important place in countering the Chinese string of pearl’s policy in the Indian Ocean.
  • With an estimated 70% of external debt owed to China it’s important for India to release Maldives from the possible debt-trap policy of China.

Cultural and People-to-People Ties

  • India and the Maldives share historical, cultural, and linguistic ties. These people-to-people connections strengthen the diplomatic relationship and enhance mutual understanding.
  • There is an estimated 25,000 Indian Nationals which makes up the second largest expatriate community in Maldives. Also, an estimated 6% of tourism in Maldives is supported by Indians.

Diplomatic Support

  • The Maldives has historically supported India’s positions on various international issues.
  • India’s partnership with the Maldives amplifies its influence in regional and global forums, reinforcing its diplomatic endeavors.
  • For instance, both Nations are engaged through platforms like SAARC, SASEC, IORA and IONS. A friendly Maldives could possibly amplify India’s presence and position in these forums/groupings.

CHALLENGES TO INDIA-MALDIVES RELATIONS

India-Maldives relations, while important and historically friendly, have faced several challenges that have shaped the course of the bilateral relationship. Some of the key challenges include:

Political Instability and Leadership Changes

  • The Maldives has witnessed periods of political instability, which have had repercussions on the bilateral relationship. Political transitions, including coups and resignations, have created uncertainties in the relationship.
  • Historically, Maldives had an Executive Presidency system since 1968, transitioning to a multi-party democracy in 2008.
  • No incumbent president has been re-elected since then, which is concerning for India this time.
  • The Maldives has, at times, shifted its foreign policy orientation away from India (‘India out’), creating apprehensions about its strategic interests in the Indian Ocean region.

Concerns About Chinese Influence

  • India is concerned about the growing influence of China in the Maldives, particularly through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects.
  • India sees these projects as potentially leading to a debt trap and undermining its influence in the region.

Debt and Economic Sustainability

  • The Maldives’ reliance on external loans and investments has raised concerns about debt sustainability. This includes both Indian and Chinese loans, potentially leading to financial vulnerabilities.

Radicalisation of youth

  • A large number of Maldives citizens had joined violent extremist organisations such as the Islamic State (IS).
  • There has been a steady rise in recruits joining jihadi groups in Pakistan over the last decade.
  • There is now a greater risk that terrorist organisations based in Pakistan will use the Maldives as a staging ground for attacks on India and Indian assets.

Environmental Challenges

  • Rising sea levels and the threat of climate change pose significant challenges for the Maldives. This affects its sustainability and economic prospects, which, in turn, can influence its relationship with India.

Slow rate of project completion

  • India’s infrastructure projects are often delayed, like the Greater Malé Connectivity Project (GMCP). Also, the China centric government like that in the present further favour’s Chinese investments.The termination of the agreement with GMR for the modernization of the Ibrahim Nasir International Airport, followed by arbitration and the subsequent award of the project to a Chinese company, has strained India-Maldives relations.

HOW THE CURRENT ELECTION RESULTS CAN IMPACT THE BILATERAL RELATIONS?

  • Developments spanning the past two decades have demonstrated China’s consistent expansion and strategic inroads into India’s neighboring regions. For India, risking the loss of goodwill in the Maldives could carry significant consequences, particularly in the context of China’s ‘String of Pearls’ strategy.
  • This becomes more important, given the fact that the current president elect Mohamed Muizzu is already representing the ‘India out’ faction.
  • This election result can significantly impact the prospects of ongoing infrastructure projects initiated by the previous Ibrahim Mohamed Solih government. These include projects like Maldives National Defence Forces Coast Guard ‘Ekatha Harbour’, initiated in May, 2023.
  • This could also mean India’s ambition of enhancing its military position in Maldives may not fructify, in wake of a free hand to Chinese investments.

Despite the expected challenges stemming from the changing political landscape in the Maldives, it remains imperative for India to maintain its unwavering commitment to its priorities and sustain its endeavors for fostering progress in the archipelago nation. Therefore, the evolving situation in the Maldives should not be underestimated. Following the experience with Hambantota, India cannot afford to allow the establishment of a Chinese military base in the region.

THE WAY FORWARD:

Diplomatic Engagement

  • Enhance Diplomatic Outreach: India should continue its robust diplomatic engagement with the Maldives, maintaining a constant dialogue at the highest levels. This ensures that both countries are aligned on regional and global issues.
  • Multilateral Forums: Active participation in regional forums like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and initiatives such as the Quad allows India and the Maldives to collaborate on regional security, economic, and environmental issues. Further, India must amplify its supporting stance for Maldives in forums like G20 through its ‘Global South-South cooperation’ mandate.

Economic Cooperation

  • Economic Projects: India should continue to support economic projects in the Maldives, focusing on critical infrastructure development, renewable energy, and tourism. These projects have a direct impact on the Maldives’ economy and can enhance mutual economic interests.
  • Trade and Investment: Efforts should be made to boost trade between the two countries, promote Indian investments in the Maldives, and facilitate opportunities for Maldivian businesses in India.

Debt Sustainability and Economic Diversification

  • Debt Management: India should support the Maldives in debt management, ensuring that investments do not lead to unsustainable debt burdens.
  • Economic Diversification: The Maldives can diversify its economy to reduce dependence on a few sectors like tourism. India can provide expertise in areas such as agriculture, fisheries, and information technology.

Addressing China’s Role

  • Balanced Engagement: India should encourage the Maldives to engage with multiple partners, including China, while maintaining transparency in all agreements and ensuring they are in line with the Maldives’ long-term interests.
  • Debt Trap Mitigation: Both countries should work together to mitigate any potential debt trap risks associated with Chinese investments, ensuring that the Maldives retains its sovereignty.

THE CONCLUSION: India holds a significant place in the collective consciousness of its neighboring countries, often seen either as a generous benefactor or, in some cases, as an overbearing “big brother.” This dual perception makes India vulnerable to being either endorsed or criticized by political parties, sometimes as an emotive electoral topic and at times as a bargaining tool in negotiations, particularly when they are seeking support from another interested party like China. India must thus, work towards greater cooperative spirit towards every political faction in Maldives being in consonance with its ‘Neighbourhood first’ policy.

QUESTIONS

Q.1 “For India, Maldives is a first line of defence against terrorism, piracy on the high seas, and potential Chinese aggression in the Indian Ocean Region.” Critically examine.

Q.2 “While India has historically pushed for the ‘neighbourhood first’ policy, it has had limited success due to contrasting and unstable political leadership in Maldives.” Examine in the light of recent developments.

ADDITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

In the political landscape of the Maldives, two significant political factions have played prominent roles: the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) and the Progressive Party of Maldives (PPM). These two factions have had a substantial impact on the country’s political dynamics. Here’s an in-depth explanation of each faction:

1. Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP):

The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) is a prominent political party in the Maldives. It was founded in 2005 and has been at the forefront of the pro-democracy movement in the country. Key features and developments related to the MDP include:

  • Foundation and Leadership: The MDP was founded by Mohamed Nasheed, who later became the Maldives’ first democratically elected President in 2008. Nasheed, a prominent advocate for democracy and climate change action, is a central figure in the MDP.
  • Pro-Democracy Movement: The MDP played a crucial role in the movement for political reforms and the transition from an autocratic regime to a multi-party democracy. This movement led to the first democratic elections in 2008, which Nasheed won.
  • Key Policy Initiatives: During its tenure in government, the MDP pursued various policy initiatives, including social welfare programs, healthcare reforms, and climate change advocacy. The Maldives, under the MDP’s leadership, gained international recognition for its efforts to address climate change and promote climate adaptation and mitigation.
  • Challenges and Political Instability: The MDP-led government faced challenges, including opposition from the conservative and religious elements in the Maldivian society. Nasheed’s resignation in 2012 amid political turmoil and disputes over the judiciary further complicated the political landscape.
  • International Relations: The MDP’s foreign policy orientation has been inclined towards India and democratic nations. Nasheed, during his presidency, sought support from India and the international community on issues of climate change, democracy, and human rights.

2. Progressive Party of Maldives (PPM):

The Progressive Party of Maldives (PPM) is another influential political faction in the Maldives. It was founded in 2011 and is associated with a more conservative and pro-establishment political outlook. Key features and developments related to the PPM include:

  • Foundation and Leadership: The PPM was founded by Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who served as the President of the Maldives for over three decades until 2008. He is a prominent figure in Maldivian politics and is known for his more conservative and authoritarian style of governance.
  • Conservative Stance: The PPM has positioned itself as a conservative political party that promotes traditional values, cultural identity, and religious conservatism. It has often been seen as a counterforce to the more progressive MDP.
  • Return of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom: After the transition to a multi-party democracy, Maumoon Abdul Gayoom returned to the political arena. He initially aligned with the MDP but later formed the PPM, creating a political division in the country.
  • Role in the Political Landscape: The PPM has played a significant role in opposition politics, challenging the MDP’s policies and advocating for a more conservative approach in governance.
  • Election Outcomes: The PPM’s candidate, Yameen Abdul Gayoom, won the presidential election in 2013. However, his tenure was marked by political controversies, including allegations of corruption and human rights abuses.
  • International Relations: During Yameen’s presidency, the Maldives maintained diplomatic relations with various countries, including China, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. These relationships were seen as diversifying the Maldives’ foreign policy.

Both the MDP and the PPM represent distinct political ideologies and have contributed to the political diversity and complexity of the Maldives. Their interactions and the outcomes of elections and political developments have significantly influenced the country’s democratic journey and policy directions.

The Sinamale Bridge, also known as the China-Maldives Friendship Bridge, is a significant infrastructure project in the Maldives that connects the capital city of Malé with the nearby island of Hulhulé, where Velana International Airport is located. The bridge plays a pivotal role in enhancing connectivity, transportation, and economic development in the Maldives.

Key features and details of the Sinamale Bridge include:            

  • Purpose and Significance: The Sinamale Bridge was constructed with the primary aim of improving transportation links between Malé and Hulhulé, the two most populous islands in the Maldives. It addresses transportation challenges and facilitates the movement of people, goods, and services.
  • Financing and Construction: The bridge project was financed and developed with support from the Chinese government and Chinese companies. It was a prominent example of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which aims to promote economic and infrastructure connectivity between China and countries around the world.
  • Inauguration: The Sinamale Bridge was officially opened in August 2018 and was seen as a significant achievement for the Maldives. It was inaugurated by then-President Abdulla Yameen Abdul Gayoom.
  • Economic Impact: The bridge has had a profound economic impact on the Maldives by easing the movement of goods, reducing transportation costs, and enhancing connectivity to the main international airport. It has also improved tourism, trade, and logistics in the country.

The Sinamale Bridge represents a critical piece of infrastructure that has enhanced connectivity, transportation, and economic development in the Maldives. It also symbolizes the growing economic cooperation between the Maldives and China. However, it has been subject to discussions and debates regarding the financial implications of Chinese investments and debt sustainability in the country.




TOPIC- THE NEED FOR REFORMS IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC)

THE CONTEXT: The call for reforming the UNSC has been active for many years which resurrected when the President of Türkiye opined that UNSC has ceased to be the guarantor of world security, while culminating into a political battleground of its five permanent members. Also, the UN’s Secretary-General asserted that addressing issues of present times requires UN institutions to adapt to the changing times. The following article aims to assess the need for reforms in UNSC so as to address the demands of the changing global order of the 21st century, from UPSC perspective.

THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations (UN), established to maintain international peace and security. It plays a critical role in addressing global conflicts, crises, and threats to international peace.

  • Composition: The UNSC is composed of 15 member states, with five permanent members (P5) and ten non-permanent members. The P5, (United States, Russia, China, France & UK) also known as the “Great Powers,” have veto power, which allows them to block any substantive resolution, making their decisions particularly influential.
  • Membership Rotation: Non-permanent members are elected for two-year terms, with five seats opening up each year. This rotation ensures that different regions of the world are represented over time.

Criteria for Membership: To become a member of the UNSC, a country must meet the following criteria:

  • UN Membership: A nation must first be a member of the United Nations to be eligible for UNSC membership.
  • Election: Non-permanent members are elected by the UN General Assembly through a two-thirds majority vote. The geographical distribution of seats is a key consideration, ensuring fair representation across regions.
  • Rotation: Members serve two-year terms and can be re-elected, but there is a limit on consecutive terms. This rotation helps maintain diversity and a balance of interests.

Mandate and Functions: The UNSC’s mandate and functions are outlined in Chapter VI and Chapter VII of the UN Charter:

  • Maintenance of International Peace and Security: The primary mandate of the UNSC is to address threats to international peace and security. It does so through various means, including conflict resolution, peacekeeping, and the authorization of the use of force when necessary.
  • Conflict Resolution: The UNSC actively seeks to resolve international conflicts through diplomatic means, negotiation, and the promotion of peaceful settlements.
  • Peacekeeping: It authorizes and oversees UN peacekeeping missions, which involve the deployment of military and civilian personnel to regions experiencing conflict to help maintain or restore peace.
  • Imposition of Sanctions: The UNSC can impose economic and diplomatic sanctions against states that threaten international peace and security. These measures are intended to pressure nations into compliance with international norms.
  • Authorization of Use of Force: In cases of imminent threats to international peace, the UNSC can authorize the use of force, which may include military intervention, to restore or maintain peace. This is a controversial but necessary function to respond to some crises.
  • Supervision of Armistices and Agreements: The UNSC monitors and supervises armistices and agreements to ensure compliance by the parties involved.
  • Protection of Civilians and Humanitarian Action: The UNSC plays a role in protecting civilians in conflict zones and promoting humanitarian assistance.
  • Recommendations on General Principles of Cooperation: The UNSC can make recommendations on principles of cooperation and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.

RECENT CASES OF INVOKING VETO

1. Israel-Palestine issue (2023)

  • The United States vetoed a UN Security Council (UNSC) resolution that would have called for “humanitarian pauses” to deliver life-saving aid to millions in Gaza.
  • Brazil, as president of the Security Council for October, 2023, responded to a call by Council members to forge a united response to the crisis and forwarded the draft resolution on October 18, 2023.
  • While 12 of the Council’s 15 members voted in favour of the Brazilian-led text, the United States voted against, while Russia, and the United Kingdom abstained. As the US spokespersons, the resolution prepared by Brazil did not do enough to underscore Israel’s right to self-defense. The US has typically exercised its Security Council veto to shield Israel from critical resolutions.
  • A ‘no’ vote from any one of the five permanent members of the Council stops action on any measure put before it.
  • Following this, Russia has asked for the 193-member U.N. General Assembly to be convened for an emergency special session on the conflict. It could decide to put a draft resolution to a vote there, where no countries hold veto power. General Assembly resolutions are non-binding but carry political weight.

2. Ukraine crisis (2014-present): Russia’s annexation of Crimea and involvement in the conflict in Eastern Ukraine has resulted in multiple UNSC resolutions being vetoed or blocked by Russia. This has hindered international efforts to resolve the crisis and maintain Ukraine’s territorial integrity. Regarding its 2022 Ukraine invasion, Russia again used its veto powers to block a United Nations Security Council (UNSC) resolution condemning its invasion of Ukraine and demanding an immediate withdrawal of its troops.

3. Rohingya Crisis (2017-present): China, a permanent member, has used its veto power to block resolutions aimed at addressing the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar. This has prevented the UNSC from taking effective action to hold the Myanmar government accountable for human rights abuses against the Rohingya people.

THE UNSC’S ROLE IN PROVIDING SECURITY AND PEACE IN THE WORLD

Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping

  • The UNSC authorized the deployment of peacekeeping missions, such as the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), which has helped maintain the ceasefire and reduce tensions between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots since 1964.
  • These missions aim to prevent and resolve conflicts and protect civilians in conflict zones.

Sanctions and Diplomacy

  • In response to North Korea’s nuclear weapons program, the UNSC imposed sanctions on North Korea, targeting its economy and restricting its access to resources.
  • These measures are designed to pressure North Korea to come to the negotiating table and engage in diplomatic efforts to denuclearize the Korean Peninsula.

Preventing Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction

  • The UNSC’s adoption of Resolution 1540 in 2004 emphasizes the need to prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).
  • It requires all member states to implement measures to prevent non-state actors from acquiring WMDs, thereby reducing the risk of their use and contributing to global security.

Humanitarian Intervention

  • In 2011, the UNSC authorized a no-fly zone and military intervention in Libya (Resolution 1973) to protect civilians from the Gaddafi regime’s violence during the Arab Spring uprisings. This intervention aimed to prevent a humanitarian catastrophe.

Counterterrorism

  • The UNSC has played a vital role in global efforts to combat terrorism. It has passed resolutions targeting terrorist organizations, individuals, and the financing of terrorism, such as resolutions related to Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (ISIS), thereby helping to reduce the threat of international terrorism.

Conflict Mediation

  • The UNSC often engages in diplomatic efforts to mediate conflicts and broker peace agreements. For instance, the UNSC has supported peace talks in Syria and Yemen, attempting to bring warring parties to the negotiating table and facilitating peace settlements.

Protecting Human Rights

  • The UNSC has a responsibility to address situations where human rights abuses or atrocities are occurring. For instance, it established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda to prosecute individuals responsible for war crimes and genocide.

Non-Proliferation Treaties

  • The UNSC oversees the implementation and enforcement of various non-proliferation treaties, such as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). By monitoring compliance and addressing violations, the UNSC helps prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.

ISSUES SURROUNDING THE UNSC:

Permanent Membership & limited inclusivity

  • The composition of the UNSC with five permanent members (P5) – the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom – holding veto power has been a longstanding source of criticism.
  • The geopolitical rivalry among the permanent members has sometimes hindered the Council from effectively addressing global issues. For instance, the United States has been historically shielding Israel from UNSC actions, Russia has been eloping itself from collective action regarding aggression in Cremean Peninsula while China has been willfully vetoing actions against terror hubs in Pakistan.
  • The UNSC does not adequately represent the geopolitical realities of the 21st century, with no permanent seats for countries from Africa, Latin America, or most of Asia. This leads to concerns about the underrepresentation of regions and nations.

Veto Power

  • Veto is the most undemocratic element of the UN, as well as the main cause of inaction on war crimes and crimes against humanity, as it effectively prevents UN action against the permanent members and their allies.
  • Amnesty International claimed that the five permanent members had used their veto to promote their political self-interest or geopolitical interest above the interest of protecting civilians.

Ineffectiveness and Gridlock

  • The UNSC has been criticized for its inability to prevent conflicts or resolve long-standing disputes, often due to political divisions among its members. For instance, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has seen numerous UNSC resolutions and negotiations, but a long-term solution has not been achieved, leading to frustration and continued conflict.

Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

  • The concept of the “Responsibility to Protect” is often discussed in the context of the UNSC. It posits that the international community has a responsibility to intervene when a state is unable or unwilling to protect its own citizens from mass atrocities. However, the UNSC’s application of R2P has been inconsistent and subject to political considerations.

Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping

  • The UNSC plays a central role in authorizing peacekeeping missions, but these missions often face challenges such as resource constraints, inadequate mandates, and complex political dynamics.

Sanctions

  • The UNSC can impose economic and other sanctions on countries, but these sanctions can be contentious and sometimes harm civilian populations. For instance, sanctions imposed on Iraq in the 1990s had severe humanitarian consequences, impacting the civilian population more than the government. This raised questions about the ethical implications of sanctions.

Use of Force

  • The UNSC has the authority to authorize military force for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security. The debates over the use of force, such as the 2003 Iraq War, have raised questions about the UNSC’s legitimacy in approving military action.

Unable to tackle contemporary issues

  • The UNSC has been called upon to address the security implications of climate change and environmental degradation. The council’s role in mitigating these issues remains a subject of debate. While the UNSC has discussed climate change as a security issue, concrete actions and resolutions addressing climate-related security threats have been limited.
  • The UNSC has been criticized for not addressing the global challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic effectively. Some argue that the council’s inability to take coordinated action has hindered international efforts to combat the virus.

Transparency and Accountability

  • The UNSC often operates behind closed doors, which can lead to criticisms of a lack of transparency and accountability in its decision-making processes.
  • The usual UN rules don’t apply to the UNSC deliberations and no records are kept of its meetings. Additionally, there is no “text” of the meeting to discuss, amend or object.

 OBSTACLES FOR INDIA’S ENTRY AS A PERMANENT UNSC MEMBER

China’s Resistance

  • China has been a consistent opponent of India’s bid for permanent membership in the UNSC. China’s concerns include India’s growing influence in the region and historical border disputes. As a P5 member, China’s veto can significantly affect any proposed reforms.

Historical Rivalries

  • Historical conflicts and rivalries can influence the stance of some countries. For example, Pakistan has been a vocal opponent of India’s UNSC bid due to the long-standing Kashmir dispute and other issues. Pakistan argues that India’s entry would disrupt regional security dynamics, making the UNSC more contentious.
  • This has also garnered opposition from the ‘coffee club’ (an informal 40-member group to oppose expansion of UNSC permanent membership). China has serious objections to Japan being there in the Security Council. Italy trying to compete with Germany in Europe for a place in the Security Council. Argentia does not agree with the fact that Brazil should represent South America in the UNSC as a permanent representative.

Reform Stalemate

  • The UN reform process, which includes discussions on UNSC expansion, has faced a stalemate, primarily because member states have different visions of what a reformed UNSC should look like.
  • The UN General Assembly’s Inter-Governmental Negotiations (IGN) on UNSC reform have made limited progress over many years due to the divergent positions of member states on issues like the number of new permanent members and the use of veto power.

Lack of Unity Among G4 Nations

  • India is part of the G4 group (along with Brazil, Germany, and Japan), which seeks permanent UNSC membership. However, these countries have not always presented a unified front, and differences in priorities or approaches can weaken their collective efforts.
  • Also, these groups face opposition from other states and blocs, such as the Uniting for Consensus group, which opposes adding new permanent members.

Practical Challenges

  • Expanding the UNSC’s permanent membership involves addressing complex logistical and operational issues, such as the allocation of veto power, equitable representation, and effective decision-making.
  • The question of how to allocate veto power to new permanent members, if any, remains a contentious issue. Any formula for distributing veto power must be agreeable to current P5 members and potential new entrants.

WHY INDIA IS A DESERVING CANDIDATE FOR A PERMANENT UNSC SEAT?

  • India’s claim for permanent representation at the global level is grounded in several significant factors. First, India’s vast population, constituting around 18% of the world’s total, underscores the need for its enduring presence on the world stage.
  • Secondly, India’s economic importance is unmistakable, with its recent ascension to the rank of the fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the third-largest by GDP (PPP). This robust economic standing demonstrates its considerable influence in the global arena.
  • Thirdly, India’s military capabilities have been steadily rising. It currently holds the fourth position in the Global Firepower Index, trailing only the United States, Russia, and China, and surpassing even some of the P5 nations like the UK and France. Additionally, India’s advancements in fields such as space exploration underline its expanding prowess. India’s acquired status of a Nuclear Weapons State (NWS) in May 1998 also makes India a natural claimant as a permanent member similar to the existing permanent members who are all Nuclear Weapon States.
  • Fourthly, India has consistently made substantial contributions to UN peacekeeping missions. While there has been a recent decline in troop numbers, India has maintained a strong tradition of active involvement in peacekeeping endeavors worldwide.
  • Lastly, India has a strong commitment to international principles. It has a historical track record of advocating for fundamental principles like respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, and peaceful coexistence. Its leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and its staunch support for disarmament, including the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, underscore its dedication to promoting global peace and security.

Achieving reform of the UNSC to accommodate India as a permanent member will require continued negotiation, diplomacy, and a willingness to address the concerns and interests of various stakeholders.

WHETHER THE WORLD SHOULD CONSIDER AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC)?

The question of whether the world should consider an alternative to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is a complex and debated topic. While the UNSC has played a central role in global security and diplomacy since its establishment, it does face various challenges and criticisms, as discussed earlier. Whether an alternative should be pursued depends on several factors and considerations:

  • Reform Within the UNSC: One option is to continue pushing for reforms within the UNSC. The need for a more representative and accountable UNSC is widely acknowledged. If meaningful reforms can be achieved, it may address many of the current criticisms and enhance the UNSC’s effectiveness.
  • Strengthening Other UN Organs: The UN has other organs, such as the General Assembly and specialized agencies, that could be empowered to take on a more substantial role in addressing global issues. This approach could involve delegating some of the UNSC’s functions to other bodies.
  • Regional Organizations: In some cases, regional organizations have taken on security and peacekeeping roles, such as the African Union and the European Union. Depending on the situation, these organizations can address regional conflicts more effectively than a global body like the UNSC.
  • New Multilateral Forums: The establishment of new multilateral forums or organizations to address specific global challenges is another option. For example, the G20 has been used to address economic and financial issues.
  • Ad Hoc Coalitions: Ad hoc coalitions of willing states, like the one formed during the Gulf War in 1990-1991, have been used to address specific crises when UNSC consensus is elusive.
  • Digital Diplomacy and Civil Society: The digital age has allowed for greater communication and coordination among civil society groups, NGOs, and citizens. Digital diplomacy and advocacy play a role in shaping international politics and can serve as a complementary tool to traditional diplomacy.
  • Hybrid Approaches: A combination of the above options may be the most realistic approach. The international system is complex, and addressing global issues often requires a multifaceted approach that leverages multiple organizations, mechanisms, and actors.

It’s important to note that the UNSC remains a critical global institution, and its role in international security and diplomacy is not easily replaceable. Any alternative or reform effort should carefully consider the complexities and geopolitical realities of the current international system.

Ultimately, the feasibility and desirability of alternatives to the UNSC depend on the specific issue at hand, the willingness of major powers to cooperate, and the level of support and consensus among UN member states. International diplomacy is an evolving process, and discussions about the structure and function of global governance institutions are ongoing.

 REFORMING THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL:
A PATH FORWARD FOR GLOBAL STABILITY:

Expansion of Permanent Membership

  • The foremost challenge is to make the UNSC more representative of the contemporary world order. The addition of new permanent members is essential, especially for the G4 nations due to their economic, strategic and military credentials. By expanding permanent membership, we can bridge the gap between the UNSC’s current composition and the realities of the 21st century.

Equitable Allocation of Veto Power

  • The allocation of veto power among new permanent members must be carefully negotiated. A rotating veto system, where new permanent members earn the right to veto over time, could be a viable solution. This approach ensures a gradual transition of power and prevents an abrupt shift in global dynamics.

Greater Transparency and Accountability

  • The UNSC must enhance its transparency and accountability mechanisms. The establishment of a formalized process for reviewing UNSC decisions, with more extensive explanations for veto use, can mitigate concerns about abuse of power.

Strengthening Regional Organizations

  • Regional organizations, such as the African Union and the European Union, play a pivotal role in addressing regional security issues. The importance of working collaboratively with these entities to tackle crises within their respective domains. This approach enables the UNSC to focus on broader global security concerns.

Prudent Use of Sanctions

  • While sanctions are essential tools for the UNSC, they must be employed judiciously. There must be stricter oversight mechanisms to assess the humanitarian impact of sanctions. It is crucial to strike a balance between targeting rogue regimes and minimizing harm to civilian populations.

Promoting Conflict Resolution and Diplomacy

  • The UNSC should prioritize diplomatic efforts and conflict resolution over military intervention whenever feasible. The UNSC should invest more in mediation, peacekeeping, and preventive diplomacy to avert crises before they escalate.

Strong Civil Society Engagement

  • Civil society plays an increasingly vital role in shaping international politics. There must be active steps for involving NGOs, think tanks, and grassroots movements in UNSC deliberations. Their perspectives can provide insights and solutions that traditional diplomacy may overlook.

Strengthening Cybersecurity and Counterterrorism Measures

  • In the digital age, the UNSC must address emerging security threats. There must be establishment of a dedicated UNSC committee on cybersecurity and counterterrorism to tackle these evolving challenges.

THE CONCLUSION: Reforming the UNSC is a complex and delicate endeavor, but it is necessary to address the pressing global issues of our time. It requires diplomatic skill, collaboration, and compromise among member states. By expanding representation, increasing transparency, and promoting conflict resolution, the UNSC can become a more effective guardian of global peace and security in the 21st century. The time for reform is now.

QUESTIONS:

Q.1 “The composition of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) no longer aligns with the realities of the shifting geopolitical landscape and the aspirations for a more equitable multipolar world.” Do you agree? Give relevant arguments in the light of recent developments.

Q.2 India’s economic, strategic and military credentials provide a strong candidature for its inclusion as a permanent UNSC member. Examine.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

VETO POWER

Veto power, in the context of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), is the authority granted to the five permanent members of the UNSC to reject or invalidate any “substantive” resolution.

This power is established in Article 27 of the United Nations Charter, which outlines the following principles:

  • Every UNSC member has a single vote.
  • Decisions related to procedural matters require a positive vote from at least nine members.
  • Decisions on all other matters necessitate a positive vote from at least nine members, with the additional condition that it must include the concurring votes of the permanent members.
  • In practical terms, this means that any of the permanent members can veto or block the adoption of a draft resolution by casting a negative vote. It’s important to note that if a permanent member abstains or is not present during the vote, it will not obstruct the passage of the resolution.
  • While the specific term “power of veto” is not explicitly used in the UN Charter, Article 27 effectively mandates the requirement for unanimous agreement among the great powers, which is why this principle is often referred to as “great power unanimity,” and the act of using this power is commonly known as the “great power veto.”

Do vetoes work in emergency sessions in the General Assembly?

  • Vetoes cannot be applied during emergency special sessions in the General Assembly.
  • The resolution that allowed emergency special sessions to come into existence is known as the ‘Uniting for Peace’ resolution.
  • The General Assembly, when not in session, can convene an emergency special session at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of its own members.



TOPIC: AN ANALYSIS OF THE GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

THE CONTEXT: The Global Hunger Index, 2023 has ranked India 117th out of 125 countries. But the Government has objected to the ranking citing flawed methodology. This article explains about the Global Hunger Index and the issue of hunger and malnutrition in India from the UPSC perspective.

WHAT IS GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX?

  • The Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a tool designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at global, regional, and national levels, reflecting multiple dimensions of hunger over time.
  • The GHI is intended to raise awareness and understanding of the struggle against hunger, provide a way to compare levels of hunger between countries and regions. It calls for attention to those areas of the world where hunger levels are highest and where the need for additional efforts to eliminate hunger is greatest.
  • It is calculated by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) based in Washington, D.C. It is Jointly published by Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe annually.
  • Based on the values of four indicators, a GHI score is calculated on a 100 point scale reflecting the severity of the hunger, where 0 is the best possible score(no hunger) and 100 is the worst.

THE GHI CALCULATION METHODOLOGY:

AN OVERVIEW OF INDIA’S RANK

1. DECLINING TREND

India’s rank in the Global Hunger Index has consistently worsened in the last 10 years, and the country’s rank has become quite poor since 2016.

Year India’s Rank No. of Countries Analysed
2023 111 125
2022 107 121
2021 101 116
2020 94 107
2019 102 117
2018 103 132
2017 100 119
2016 97 118
2015 80 117
2014 55 120

2. Nutrition assessment

  • Undernourishment: The undernourishment rate in India is 16.6%.
  • Under-five mortality: India’s under-five mortality rate is 3.1%.
  • Prevalence of anaemia: The prevalence of anaemia in women between the ages of 15-24 stood at 58.1%. More than 50% of women and adolescents are anaemic in the country, one of the highest across the world.
  • Child-wasting: As per the index, India also has the highest child-wasting rate in the world at 18.7%, reflecting acute undernutrition.
  • Child stunting: It has declined from 38.7% to 35.5% between 2014 and 2023.

DEFINITION OF THE KEY TERMS:

Hunger: It is usually understood to refer to the distress associated with a lack of sufficient calories. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines food deprivation, or undernourishment, as the habitual consumption of too few calories to provide the minimum dietary energy an individual requires to live a healthy and productive life, given that person’s sex, age, stature, and physical activity level.

Undernutrition: It goes beyond calories and signifies deficiencies in any or all of the following: energy, protein, and/ or essential vitamins and minerals. Undernutrition is the result of inadequate intake of food in terms of either quantity or quality, poor utilization of nutrients due to infections or other illnesses, or a combination of these immediate causes.

Malnutrition: It refers more broadly to both undernutrition (problems caused by deficiencies) and overnutrition (problems caused by unbalanced diets that involve consuming too many calories in relation to requirements, with or without low intake of micronutrient-rich foods).

Stunting: It is defined as low height-for-age. It is the result of chronic or recurrent undernutrition, usually associated with poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, frequent illness and/or inappropriate feeding and care in early life.

Wasting: It is defined as low weight-for-height. It often indicates recent and severe weight loss, although it can also persist for a long time.It usually occurs when a person has not had food of adequate quality and quantity and/or they have had frequent or prolonged illnesses.

3. India’s comparison with Neighboring countries

          India fares worse (rank lower) than South Asian countries- Sri Lanka (60), Nepal (69), Bangladesh (81), and Pakistan (102).

WHAT IS THE RESPONSE OF GOVERNMENT OF INDIA VIS A VIS THE INDEX

FAILS TO REPRESENT REALITY

  • Government said in a statement that the Global Hunger Index is an inaccurate indicator of “hunger” and fails to accurately represent India’s situation.
  • The report is disconnected from ground reality and is an attempt to taint India’s image, but India is a nation known for its agricultural prowess and food surplus status.

ISSUES IN METHODOLOGY

  • The Index suffers from serious methodological issues. Three out of the four indicators used for calculation of the index are related to the health of children and cannot be representative of the entire population.
  • The fourth and most important indicator ‘Proportion of Undernourished (PoU) population’ is based on an opinion poll conducted on a very small sample size.

IGNORES GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

  • It deliberately ignores the food security efforts of the Central government, especially during the pandemic, as Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Ann Yojna (PM-GKAY), which provisioned an additional five kg ration per person each month in addition to the National Food Security Act.
  • Under Mission Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 (Mission Poshan 2.0), India has prioritised a number of crucial initiatives to address the problem of malnutrition.
  • Poshan Tracker’ application was launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development acted as a vital governance tool in the field of nutrition by a number of significant international organisations, including UNICEF, WHO, and the World Bank.

LIMITED DATA

  • There are issues of limited sample size and reliance on a constrained set of questions introduce biases that fail to capture the intricate nuances of India’s food situation.
  • For example, the undernourishment data, a cornerstone of the index, relies on a Gallup World Poll with a mere 3,000 respondents.
  • Household consumption surveys, which have not been conducted since 2011, are a primary source of data.

ISSUES IN MINDSET

  • Though, it is evident that there are methodological errors and misinterpretations of the underlying data.
  • Additionally, there is a prevailing mind-set issue rooted in stereotypes, where India is often perceived as a nation plagued by widespread child starvation.

ANALYSIS OF THE CLAIM OF THE GOI ON GHI: WHETHER IT IS CORRECT?

  • Indian government has called the Global Hunger Index as a “flawed measure of hunger that doesn’t reflect India’s true position’’.
  • For example, It said that data recorded on its Poshan Tracker portal showed child wasting prevalence of 7.2% among a total of 7.24 crore under-five-year-olds whose data was captured, whereas the GHI used a value of 18.7% for child wasting.
  • Here, GHI argues that it uses the same data sources for all countries to calculate the respective country scores. This ensures that all the rates used have been produced using comparable methodologies.
  • The other objection the government alleged that the use of a telephone-based opinion poll to calculate undernourishment, one of the indicators used in GHI.
  • The GHI has maintained that it doesn’t use the poll, but relies on data from India’s Food Balance Sheet to calculate undernourishment.
  • Government argues that the three out of the four indicators used for calculation of the index are related to the health of children and cannot be representative of the entire population. And the fourth indicator ‘Proportion of Undernourished (PoU) population’ is based on an opinion poll on narrow size of population of 3000.
  • The Indian government also cast doubts over using stunting and wasting as two indicators for the GHI report preparation. The government says ‘hunger’ may cause stunting and wasting, but they could also be a result of factors like sanitation, genetics, utilisation of food intake etc. Therefore, it raised questions over using ‘hunger’ as something it termed as ‘outcome’ for stunting and wasting, for the GHI scores.
  • There may be issues with the index, but to dismiss the lower ranking as completely false is not the right approach. Especially when other reports have pointed out the challenges of hunger in the country, the GoI needs to be more receptive to the findings of the report while the agency publishing GHI needs to address the methodological concerns if any.

GLOBAL INDICES FOR REFORMS AND GROWTH

  • The Government of India has decided to leverage select Global Indices to drive reforms and growth across the country.
  • The Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office (DMEO), NITI Aayog has been designated as the knowledge partner for this exercise to facilitate monitoring progress on these Indices across States/UTs through a single dashboard.
  • These Indices are divided across four categories – Industry, Development, Economy and Governance.
  • It is being utilized as a means of driving India’s performance across important social, economic and development parameters tracked globally and at the indigenous level.
  • It also aims to serve as a means of improving citizen service delivery through robust data for systemic reforms in the policies to improve the standard and ease of living, creating a conducive ecosystem for investment, and drive sustainable development.

THE STATUS OF HUNGER IN INDIA: THE COMPLETE PICTURE

1. THE NATIONAL FAMILY HEALTH SURVEY (NFHS-5): The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) has shown improvement in stunting and waste and a significant reduction in Under-five Mortality Rate. As per the recent report of NFHS-5 (2019-21), the nutrition indicators for children under 5 years have improved as compared with NFHS-4 (2015-16). Stunting has reduced from 38.4% to 35.5%, Wasting has reduced from 21.0% to 19.3% and Underweight prevalence has reduced from 35.8% to 32.1%.

2. THE STATE OF FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION IN THE WORLD (SOFI) REPORT 2023:

  • It is published jointly by five UN organisations i.e the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the United Nations Children’s Fund, the World Food Programme and the World Health Organization.
  • It also presents worrisome estimates of widespread and worsening food insecurity in India.
  • According to the SOFI report, India has the lowest cost of a healthy diet among BRICS nations and its neighbours. For instance, in India, a healthy diet costs 3.066 PPP dollars per person per day, the lowest among the countries considered.
  • While food prices remain relatively low in India, a healthy diet is unaffordable to nearly three-fourth of the people given their low incomes. For instance, in India, 74% were not able to afford a healthy diet, the fourth highest share among the nations considered.
  • Only countries like Nepal, Pakistan, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Niger, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Liberia, Guinea and Guinea Bissau had a higher share of their respective populations than India which were not able to afford a healthy diet.
  • The SOFI-2023 report also said 233.9 million (24 crore) people in India are ‘undernourished’.
  • (GNR 2021)

THE REASONS BEHIND INDIA’S PERSISTENT PROBLEM OF HUNGER

RISING POPULATION

  • With increasing number of population in India, it has become hard to fulfill the requirements of each section of the society.
  • Despite, a major part of the Indian population is engaged in agricultural activities, the availability of food remains a challenge due to this increasing population of the country.

CLIMATE CHANGE

  • There is a persistent issue of climate change with erratic rainfall and increasing frequency of extreme events that have impacted agricultural activities everywhere, creating unfavourable conditions for food production.
  • Climate variability affecting rainfall patterns and agricultural seasons, and climate extremes such as droughts and floods, are among the key drivers behind the rise in hunger, together with conflict and economic slowdowns.

INEFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION POLICIES

  • There is a poor implementation of the existing schemes and policies in India. For example, the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and the National Health Mission (NHM) have not achieved adequate coverage.
  • Apart from that, food wastage is also an emerging challenge that undermines the efforts to end hunger and malnutrition. According to the FAO, the global volume of food wastage is estimated at 1.6 billion tonnes of primary product equivalents.

LACK OF AWARENESS

  • There is a lack of awareness among the population of India about the existing programmes of the government.
  • There is also issue of lack of education and training on new techniques, technologies and agricultural products which has led to less agriculture production. Traditional farming methods are slightly more time-consuming and delay the production of food grains, etc.
  • The change from multi to mono cropping systems limits the diversity of agricultural products. Inclination towards cash crops and changing food habits result in malnutrition, undernutrition and even micro-nutrient deficiencies.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL NATURE

  • Hunger and the related undernutrition is the result of various associated factors ranging from water, sanitation, access to food items.
  • A person’s ‘nutritional quotient’ is also dependent on demographic factors like gender, caste, age, etc.

STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA TO FIGHT HUNGER

NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY ACT, 2013

  • The National Food Security Act of 2013 aims to provide for food and nutritional security in the human life cycle approach by ensuring access to adequate quantities of quality food at affordable prices for people to live a life with dignity.
  • The Act provides for coverage of up to 75% of the rural population and up to 50% of the urban population for receiving subsidized foodgrains under Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS), thus covering about two-thirds of the population.
  • The eligible persons will be entitled to receive 5 Kgs of foodgrains per person per month at subsidised prices of Rs. 3/2/1 per Kg for rice/wheat/coarse grains.

INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS) SCHEME

  • It provides for supplementary nutrition, immunization and pre-school education to the children is a popular flagship programme of the government.
  • It was launched in 1975, it is one of the world’s largest programmes providing for an integrated package of services for the holistic development of the child.
  • ICDS is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented by state governments and union territories. The scheme is universal, covering all the districts of the country.
  • The Scheme has been renamed as Anganwadi Services. The services are now offered as part of the Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 ( Poshan 2.0)

PRADHAN MANTRI MATRU VANDANA YOJANA

  • Under-nutrition continues to adversely affect the majority of women in India. In India, every third woman is undernourished, and every second woman is anaemic.
  • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana  (PMMVY) is a Maternity Benefit Programme that is implemented in all the districts of the country.
  • It is a Centrally Sponsored DBT scheme that provides a cash incentive of ₹ 5000/- to Pregnant Women and Lactating Mothers of 19 years of age or above for the first live birth.
  • The incentive is paid in three installments upon fulfilling certain health and nutrition conditions.

INTEGRATED NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME SAKSHAM ANGANWADI AND POSHAN 2.0

  • It aims to address the problems of malnutrition in children, adolescent girls, pregnant women, and lactating mothers.
  • It also seeks to develop and promote practises that foster health, wellness, and immunity through a strategic shift in nutrition content and delivery and the development of a converging eco-system.
  • Poshan Tracker: The ‘Poshan Tracker’ ICT application was created and implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development as a crucial governance tool. The Poshan Tracker has included WHO’s expanded tables to dynamically determine stunting, wasting, underweight, and obesity status based on a child’s height, weight, gender, and age.

EAT RIGHT INDIA MOVEMENT

  • It is an outreach activity organized by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) for citizens to nudge them towards eating right.
  • Eat Right India adopts an integrative or ‘whole of the government’ approach since the movement brings together food-related mandates of the agriculture, health, environment and other ministries.
  • It also adopts a ‘whole of society’ approach, bringing all stakeholders together on a common platform.
  • Eat Right India is aligned to the National Health Policy 2017 with its focus on preventive and promotive healthcare and flagship programmes like Ayushman Bharat, POSHAN Abhiyaan, Anemia Mukt Bharat and Swacch Bharat Mission.

LESSONS FROM INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES: CASE STUDY

FOME ZERO: HOW BRAZIL IS TACKLING HUNGER AND FOOD INSECURITY

About Fome Zero: Hunger is a multi-sectoral problem requiring an integrated, cross-government response. The Fome Zero programme recognises that poverty reduction, food security, and support for small-scale agriculture are intimately connected. Its 50 interlinked initiatives are intended both to increase access to food for the poorest people (through cash transfers, livelihoods support, and targeted free meals), and to support food production from small-scale and family farmers.

 Fome Zero has three main policy pillars:

 1. The Bolsa Família is the world’s largest conditional cash transfer programme. It provides direct income, under certain conditions, to 12.7 million families (nearly 50 million people) facing poverty and deprivation (World Bank 2010). Through linking and integration with other social programmes, access to financial benefits is based on access to basic rights such as health, education, and food in order to support poverty reduction more effectively.

 2. The school meal programme provides 47 million free school meals every day.

 3. The strengthening of family agriculture pillar: It is intended to strengthen and stimulate small-scale and family-based agriculture in order to increase the quality and quantity of the food supply, and to support increased incomes for rural households. This programme includes subsidized credit, training and technical assistance, and insurance for small-scale and family farmers. The Family Agriculture Food Procurement Programme aims to ensure a stable market price for products from small-scale farmers, for example by buying local food products for government feeding programmes or for local food banks.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Holistic Approach: There is a need of adoption of holistic approach to address the challenge of food security. It can be done by looking at diverse issues from a common lens such as inequality, food diversity, indigenous rights, and environmental justice and sustainable green economy.
  • Addressing loopholes in food security management: Food management in India is one of the main reasons for food insecurity. It can be done by ensuring transparency in food stock holdings by using technological advancements as using IT to improve communication channels with farmers. It can help them to get a better deal for their produce while improving storage houses with the latest technology is equally important to deal with natural disasters.
  • Improvement in data collection: There is an urgent need to critically re-evaluate the methods and data sources of food security assessment. It can be done with improved and real-time data from the Indian Government, coupled with closer coordination with international organizations, particularly the FAO and the WHO. This collaborative effort is essential to ensure a more accurate representation of India’s food security situation and to effectively combat hunger and malnutrition.
  • Political will and government initiatives: There is a need of significant political will and government action to transform its food and nutrition landscape. The existing government initiatives and schemes should be implemented carefully and adequately so that no one is left behind.
  • Agricultural investment: For managing food security, there is a need to invest in agricultural research and development to develop high-yield and climate-resilient crop varieties. It can be done by promoting sustainable farming practices, including organic farming and precision agriculture and improved access to modern farming technologies, such as improved seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation systems.

THE CONCLUSION: It may be true  that there are issues in methodology of Global Hunger Index, showing such poor state of hunger in India. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that while significant progress has been made, there are still issues that persist in ensuring food security in India. The challenge lies in identifying these specific areas and taking immediate steps to combat hunger and malnutrition in all its forms.

MAINS QUESTIONS:

Q.1 India’s ranking in recently published Global Hunger Index, 2023 underscores the persistent challenges in addressing hunger and undernutrition. Comment.

Q.2 The government has rejected the Global Hunger Index, 2023, claiming it was an effort to ‘taint’ India and questioned its methodology. In this respect, compare the findings of the index with other national and international reports. Also highlight the status of food security measures taken by the government to address the problem of hunger.




TOPIC: FIXING THE ROT IN THE COOPERATIVE SECTOR

THE CONTEXT: Cooperatives in India play a vital role in the socio-economic development of the country by addressing the needs of various sectors, including agriculture, banking, credit, marketing, and more. However, the cooperative sector in India has faced various serious challenges in recent years as evident by the PMC Bank crisis in 2019 or the very recent case of financial irregularities in the Karuvannur Service Cooperative Bank, Kerala. The following article attempts to explore the various ills surrounding the cooperative sector in India and suggest ways to reform it from the UPSC perspective.

WHAT IS A COOPERATIVE SOCIETY?

  • According to the International Cooperative Alliance, a cooperative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise.
  • Cooperatives, as business enterprises, have fundamental concerns like ownership and control, but these concerns are directly held by the consumers or users. As a result, they adhere to a set of overarching principles that go beyond mere profit generation. While they aim for profitability, it is balanced by the well-being of their members and the broader community’s interests.

INSTANCES IN THE PAST HIGHLIGHTING THE ROT IN THE COOPERATIVES SECTOR

The Department of Financial Services on July 31, 2023, disclosed alarming figures related to fraudulent activities in the cooperative banking sector. According to their data, cooperative banks across the country reported a staggering total of 4,135 frauds during the last five years, with an involved amount reaching Rs 10,856.7 crore. As of June 14, 2023, the total number of cooperative banks in the country stands at 1,886, comprising 1,500 urban cooperative banks and 386 rural cooperative banks.

TRACING THE HISTORY OF COOPERATIVES IN INDIA

LAWS UNDER WHICH COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES CAN BE REGISTERED IN INDIA

In India, different types of cooperatives need to register under various laws based on their nature and functions. Here are some of the key laws under which different types of cooperatives are required to register:

  • Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002: Multi-State Cooperative Societies register under this act when they operate in multiple states. This law governs their formation and operation, ensuring uniformity in their functioning across different regions.
  • Cooperative Societies Act of the respective State: Most cooperative societies, including agricultural credit societies, housing cooperatives, and non-agricultural credit societies, register under the cooperative societies act of the respective state they are located in. Each state has its own cooperative societies act that governs the registration and functioning of these societies.
  • Banking Regulation Act, 1949: Cooperative banks, including urban cooperative banks (UCBs), register under the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, and the Banking Laws (Co-operative Societies) Act, 1955. They are broadly divided into Urban and Rural cooperative banks. This act empowers the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to regulate and supervise cooperative banks in India.

Cooperative banks are financial institutions established by individuals from the same local or professional community or those who share a common interest. These individuals come together and create a cooperative society under the legal framework of the Cooperative Societies Act. When such a cooperative society ventures into the field of banking, it is referred to as a Cooperative Bank. Before commencing banking operations, the society is required to acquire a license from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

  • The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) Act, 1962: Cooperative societies seeking financial assistance and development support from the National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) need to register under this act to access NCDC’s services and resources.
  • State Cooperative Marketing Acts: Marketing cooperatives, often known as Agricultural Produce Marketing Committees (APMCs) or similar entities, register under the State Cooperative Marketing Acts. These acts govern the marketing and distribution of agricultural produce.
  • The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) Act, 1981: Cooperative credit institutions, especially those in the agricultural sector, register under the NABARD Act to avail financial and developmental assistance from NABARD.
  • State Specific Acts and Regulations: Some specific types of cooperatives may be governed by state-specific acts and regulations. For example, cooperative housing societies in Maharashtra register under the Maharashtra Cooperative Societies Act, 1960, and the Maharashtra Ownership Flats (Regulation of the Promotion of Construction, Sale, Management, and Transfer) Act, 1963.

EXTENT OF POWERS OF THE RBI & STATE GOVERNMENTS IN THE REGULATION OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES

Reserve Bank of India (RBI):

  • Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs): The RBI has significant regulatory powers over UCBs. It issues licenses for the establishment of UCBs and provides them with guidelines for their operations. The RBI also conducts inspections and audits of UCBs to ensure their compliance with banking regulations. For example, the RBI can issue directions to UCBs to rectify deficiencies, freeze assets, or supersede the board of directors in cases of financial distress.
  • Policy Formulation: The RBI plays a role in formulating policies related to cooperative banks, which includes setting guidelines for capital adequacy, asset classification, income recognition, and provisioning.
  • Resolution and Amalgamation: The RBI has the authority to take corrective measures, such as supersession of the board and imposition of restrictions, to address financial distress in UCBs. It also encourages amalgamation and restructuring of weak UCBs. For example, the amalgamation of Rupee Cooperative Bank with Saraswat Cooperative Bank in 2013.

State Governments:

  • Registration and Governance: State governments are primarily responsible for the registration and governance of cooperative societies. They enact Cooperative Societies Acts that define the legal framework for the formation, registration, and operation of cooperatives.
  • Registrar of Cooperative Societies: State governments appoint a Registrar of Cooperative Societies who is responsible for granting registration to cooperative societies, ensuring their compliance with state laws, and overseeing their governance. The Registrar has the authority to grant or cancel the registration of cooperative societies.
  • Agricultural Cooperatives: State governments regulate and support agricultural cooperatives, particularly Agricultural Produce Marketing Committees (APMCs), which play a crucial role in marketing agricultural produce.
  • Housing Cooperative Societies: The formation, governance, and dispute resolution related to housing cooperative societies are largely under state government jurisdiction. They enforce laws such as the Maharashtra Cooperative Societies Act, 1960, to govern these societies. The rules for housing societies differ from one state to another, based on the respective state’s Cooperative Societies Act.
  • Financial Cooperatives: State governments also regulate certain financial cooperatives, especially rural cooperative banks. These institutions are subject to the rules and regulations specified in the state’s Cooperative Societies Act. For example, the Kerala State Cooperative Bank operates under the regulatory framework of the Kerala Cooperative Societies Act.

In summary, while the RBI has a predominant regulatory role in overseeing UCBs at the national level, state governments hold substantial regulatory powers when it comes to the registration and governance of various types of cooperative societies. State governments define the legal framework, appoint registrars, and regulate cooperative societies based on their specific Cooperative Societies Acts. Cooperative societies in India are thus subject to a dual regulatory framework, with each entity overseeing aspects within its jurisdiction.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS REGARDING COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES

The Indian Constitution contains several provisions that pertain to cooperative societies and their governance. While the Constitution does not explicitly define cooperative societies or provide detailed guidelines for their formation and functioning, it does lay the foundation for the legal framework through various principles and articles

  • Article 19(1)(c): This provision falls under the Right to Freedom, and it grants Indian citizens the right to form associations or unions, including cooperative societies. It ensures the freedom to establish and operate cooperatives without undue government interference.
  • Article 43-B (Directive Principles of State Policy): Article 43-B was inserted into the Constitution through the 97th Amendment in 2011. It emphasizes the promotion of cooperative societies, especially those in rural areas, as a means of economic and social development. The state is directed to encourage and support these cooperatives.
  • Article 243-ZT (Part IX-B of the Constitution): This article is part of the provisions related to the Panchayats in rural areas. It recognizes the importance of cooperative societies and empowers Panchayats to take measures to strengthen and promote them.
  • Article 243-ZV (Part IX-B of the Constitution): This article, related to the Panchayats as well, states that Panchayats can levy taxes, duties, tolls, and fees for various purposes, including promoting cooperative societies.
  • Article 243-ZW (Part IX-B of the Constitution): This article allows for the delegation of powers and responsibilities to Panchayats by the state legislature, including those pertaining to cooperative societies. It emphasizes local self-governance and management of resources.
  • In Schedule 7 as Entries 43 and 44 in the Union list and Entry 32 in the State list

IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATIVE BANKS IN INDIA

Financial Inclusion and Rural Development

  • Cooperative banks are often the primary source of banking services in rural and semi-urban areas where commercial banks may not have a significant presence. They facilitate financial inclusion by bringing banking services to remote regions.
  • Example: Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) in India, which have a cooperative bank structure, have been instrumental in providing banking services to underserved areas.
  • It has an extensive branch network all over the country, making credit easily available even to rural areas. It accounts for 67 per cent of total rural credit.

Agricultural Lending

  • Cooperative banks are at the forefront of providing credit to the agricultural sector, supporting farmers with agricultural loans, crop loans, and allied activities.
  • According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), cooperative banks contribute a significant share of agricultural credit in the country.
  • Example: The Gujarat State Cooperative Agricultural and Rural Development Bank Limited (GSCARDB) has played a pivotal role in promoting agricultural activities in the state.
  • The National Cooperative Database (NCD) has mapped 2.5 lakh primary agricultural, dairy, and fishery societies and over five lakh societies in the remaining sectors.

Savings Mobilization

  • Cooperative banks encourage savings in rural and urban areas, fostering a culture of thrift and financial discipline.
  • They offer savings accounts with attractive interest rates and serve as a secure place for individuals to deposit their savings.
  • Example: Kerala State Co-operative Bank is known for its robust savings products, attracting depositors from different walks of life.

Credit to Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)

  • Cooperative banks often focus on providing credit to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and micro-enterprises, supporting entrepreneurship and economic development.
  • Example: The Tamil Nadu State Apex Cooperative Bank (TNSCB) provides financial assistance to SMEs, promoting economic growth in the state.

Support for Women Empowerment

  • Women’s cooperative banks and self-help groups (SHGs) supported by cooperative institutions have empowered women economically and socially.
  • These initiatives provide women with access to credit, allowing them to engage in income-generating activities.
  • Example: Mann Deshi Mahila Sahakari Bank in Maharashtra, a women’s cooperative bank, empowers rural women by providing financial services tailored to their needs.

Community Development

  • Cooperative banks are deeply rooted in their communities and often engage in various social and community development initiatives.
  • They support local development projects, educational programs, and healthcare services.
  • Example: The Kerala State Co-operative Agricultural and Rural Development Bank (KSCARDB) is involved in community initiatives, including projects related to agriculture, education, and rural infrastructure.

Stabilizing the Financial System

  • Cooperative banks provide stability to the financial system by offering a safe place for deposits and promoting financial intermediation in underserved areas.
  • They complement the services of commercial banks and prevent financial exclusion in various regions.
  • Example: Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs) in cities like Mumbai provide banking services to urban populations and serve as important pillars of the financial system.

Empowering Local Governance

  • Cooperative banks often work closely with local bodies and panchayats, promoting cooperative federalism and decentralized financial management.
  • They strengthen local governance by supporting rural development projects at the grassroots level.
  • Example: Cooperative banks collaborate with Gram Panchayats in West Bengal to implement various development programs and uplift rural areas.

Job Creation

  • Cooperative banks create employment opportunities in both urban and rural areas, fostering economic growth.
  • They generate jobs for banking professionals, support staff, and other ancillary roles.
  • Example: Cooperative banks often employ local residents, providing livelihoods in areas where employment opportunities may be limited.

Economic Diversification

  • Cooperative banks diversify economic activities by providing financial services to a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, housing, education, and more.
  • This diversification contributes to the overall economic stability and development of the regions they serve.

ISSUES SURROUNDING COOPERATIVE BANKS IN INDIA

Financial Mismanagement and Scams

  • Several cooperative banks and credit societies have been involved in financial mismanagement and scams, leading to significant losses for depositors and members.
  • For instance, the PMC Bank crisis in 2019, where the Punjab and Maharashtra Cooperative Bank faced a massive financial fraud, left thousands of depositors in distress.

Lack of Transparency and Accountability

  • Transparency and accountability within many cooperatives have been questioned.
  • Audits of cooperative banks are often conducted by government officials and are neither regular nor comprehensive. Delays in audit processes and the submission of reports are common. The lack of transparent financial reporting and auditing practices has raised concerns about the safety of members’ investments.

Political Interference

  • Political interference in the management and functioning of cooperatives is a persistent issue. Many cooperatives are influenced by political leaders, which can lead to mismanagement and inefficiency.
  • Many of them are in cooperatives because they want to use this position as a steppingstone for their political ambitions.

Rural-Urban Divide

  • There is a significant divide between urban and rural cooperatives in terms of access to resources, technology, and government support. Rural cooperatives often face more challenges in accessing credit, markets, and infrastructure.

Poor Management and Lack of Professionalism (on part of RBI & leadership in respective Cooperative societies/banks)

  • Many cooperatives lack professional management and governance. This results in inefficiencies and a lack of competitiveness. The absence of skilled professionals in leadership positions can hinder the growth of cooperatives.
  • Previously, UCBs were subject to dual regulation by both the state registrar of societies and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). However, in 2020, the RBI took over the supervision of all UCBs and multi-state cooperatives.
  • Even after RBI’s supervision, scams and corruption continue to take place as seen in the recent Karuvannur Service Cooperative Bank in Thrissur, Kerala.
  • Cooperatives have sometimes been used for regulatory arbitrage, circumventing lending and anti-money laundering regulations. Notably, the investigation into the Punjab and Maharashtra Cooperative (PMC) Bank scam revealed severe financial mismanagement and a breakdown of internal control mechanisms.

Poor lending standards

  • The RBI’s report indicated a significant decline in agricultural lending by UCBs. While these banks once played a crucial role in this sector, their share in total agricultural lending has decreased significantly, from 64% in 1992-93 to just 11.3% in 2019-20.

Competition and Technology Challenges

  • Cooperative sectors such as retail and consumer cooperatives are facing stiff competition from e-commerce platforms and modern retail chains. Adapting to changing consumer preferences and technology is a challenge.
  • Evolving trends in the financial sector, including the rise of microfinance, FinTech companies, payment gateways, e-commerce firms, and Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), pose challenges to the continued presence of Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs). UCBs are often small in size, lack professional management, and have limited geographic diversity in their operations.

Crisis of the non-performing assets (NPAs)

  • Many of the co-operative banks have higher Non-Performing Assets (NPA) than commercial banks. This is because co-operative institutions have the leeway to extend credit to local consumers, often on the basis of trust or compassion or due to pressure from local social or political groups. Reserve Bank of India (RBI) governor has also expressed concern over high gross non-performing assets (GNPA) ratio of 8.7% in urban cooperative banks (UCBs).

STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT TO PROMOTE COOPERATIVE SECTOR IN INDIA

ADMINISTRATIVE & POLICY STEPS

Ministry of Cooperation

A new Ministry of cooperation has been created to streamline the cooperative sector in India. It provides a separate administrative, legal and policy framework mechanism for strengthening the cooperative sector in the country

Tax Benefits and Incentives

Tax benefits and incentives are offered to cooperative societies. For instance, under Section 80P of the Income Tax Act, cooperative societies enjoy tax exemptions on their income.

Support for Women’s Cooperatives

The government encourages the formation of women’s cooperative societies and self-help groups (SHGs). These entities empower women economically and socially. An example is the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), which promotes the creation of SHGs.

Credit Facilities and Interest Subsidies

Various government programs offer credit facilities and interest subsidies to cooperative societies. For instance, the National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) provides financial assistance to cooperatives in different sectors.

Training and Capacity Building

The National Cooperative Union of India (NCUI) and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) conduct training programs to enhance the skills and knowledge of cooperative bank staff, ensuring they are well-equipped to meet modern banking requirements.

Promotion of Agricultural Cooperatives

  • The government actively promotes agricultural cooperatives, which are instrumental in providing credit and marketing support to farmers. One of the notable examples is the National Agriculture Cooperative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED), which procures and markets agricultural produce on behalf of farmers.
  • The government has actively promoted the formation of Farmer Producer Organizations to improve the income and livelihood of farmers. FPOs are essentially cooperative structures that allow farmers to collectively engage in agricultural and marketing activities.

LEGISLATIVE STEPS

Implementation of the 97th Amendment

The 97th Amendment to the Constitution in 2011 gave cooperatives a constitutional status and emphasized democratic functioning and accountability within these organizations. This amendment aimed to promote transparency and strengthen the cooperative movement in the country.

Increasing RBI oversight

In June 2020, the Central government passed an Ordinance to place all urban and multi-state cooperative banks directly under the regulatory oversight of the RBI.

The Multistate Cooperative Societies Amendment Act, 2022

It amends the Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002, To enhance transparency, accountability, improve ease of doing business, and promote better financial discipline among multi-state cooperatives.

STEPS TAKEN BY RBI

Regulatory oversight

  • In January 2020, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) updated the Supervisory Action Framework (SAF) for Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs).
  • In 2021, the RBI established a committee that proposed a four-tier structure for UCBs.

Amalgamation and strengthening

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has been actively encouraging the amalgamation of weak cooperative banks to improve their financial health. It also provides financial assistance and regulatory guidance to strengthen these banks.

Prudential Norms and Regulations

RBI has introduced prudential norms and regulations for cooperative banks to ensure their financial stability and protect depositors’ interests. This includes measures for asset classification, income recognition, and provisioning. Also, there’s regulatory oversight over the earmarked priority sector lending commitments.

Technology Adoption

Cooperative banks are encouraged to adopt modern technology for efficient operations and better customer service. This includes the use of core banking solutions, online banking, and digital payment systems.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • High Powered Committee on Co-operatives (2009) had recommended that central government should create a National Co-operative Rehabilitation and Institutional Protection Fund to revive sick units and states should contribute to the fund.
  • In 2015, a committee headed by R. Gandhi, a former deputy governor at the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), suggested a series of governance reforms for the cooperative banking sector. Some of these recommendations included:
    • Enhanced RBI Oversight: Strengthening the RBI’s control and supervision over cooperative banks. This entails providing the RBI with greater authority and involvement in overseeing the functioning of these banks.
    • Professional Management: Advocating for professional management of these banks, similar to the corporate banking sector. This implies granting the board of directors’ powers akin to those held by directors in commercial banks, allowing them to independently assess and supervise the bank’s operations. The board should have the authority to question the representation of shareholders.
    • Amendments to Banking Regulation Act, 1949: Proposing changes to the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, to expand the RBI’s authority to wind up and liquidate banks without the involvement of other regulators, particularly under the cooperative societies’ laws.
    • Conversion to Small Finance Banks: Recommending that cooperative banks be permitted to convert into small finance banks under RBI regulations, provided they meet specific criteria and conditions.
    • Establishment of an Umbrella Organization: Suggesting the creation of an overarching organization responsible for supervising and coordinating the activities of all cooperative banks. This organization should report directly to the RBI, thus subjecting it to more rigorous control.
  • The Multistate Cooperative Societies Amendment Act, 2022, was long due as there was no centralized legislation for multistate cooperatives Which were reeling under mismanagement and misuse of funds. However, the government must look towards creating a more decentralized and autonomous ground for the cooperative societies by overcoming centralizing provisions in the amendment bill.
  • Cooperative societies must be brought under the purview of the RTI act to ensure greater efficiency and transparency in the overall functioning and management.
  • Steps should be taken to implement regular audits from autonomous bodies and also make ground for efficient social audits of various policies and fund allocation by the stakeholders of respective cooperative societies.
  • The 2nd report of Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) recommended that under Article 19, 19(1)(h) may be added as follows: “(h) to form and run cooperatives based on principles of voluntary and open membership, democratic member control, member economic participation, and autonomous functioning free from State control.” This would ensure more transparency and autonomy to cooperative structure in India.

THE CONCLUSION: In summary, cooperative banks in India are not just financial institutions; they are essential pillars of economic development, financial inclusion, and community empowerment. Their contributions to agricultural lending, rural development, financial inclusion, and social development are instrumental in shaping India’s economic landscape. With a strong focus on cooperative principles and community well-being, these banks continue to play a pivotal role in India’s journey towards economic growth and social equity. Thus, only a prudent, proficient and transparent cooperative banking sector can fulfill the aim of financial inclusivity in India.

QUESTIONS:

Q.1  “Cooperative banks should focus more on the quality of governance, which is based on three pillars of compliance, risk management, and internal audit.” Analyse the statement in the light of recent scams surrounding the cooperative banking system in India.

Q.2 “The Indian cooperative sector suffers from regulatory inflation and multiplicity of control at various levels of government.” Critically analyze

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL COOPERATIVE IN INDIA:

  • Amul (Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd):

o    Type: Dairy Cooperative

o    Success Story: Amul is one of India’s most iconic cooperatives, bringing together millions of dairy farmers in Gujarat. It has empowered farmers by providing a platform to market their milk and dairy products collectively. Amul is a symbol of cooperative success, significantly improving the livelihoods of its members.

o    Amul, with over 3.6 million milk producer members, has become the world’s largest producer of milk and milk products. It processes around 23 million liters of milk daily and has increased the income of dairy farmers significantly.

  • Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO):

o    Type: Agricultural Cooperative

o    Success Story: IFFCO is one of the world’s largest fertilizer cooperatives, catering to the agricultural needs of farmers across India. It has been instrumental in providing quality fertilizers, agricultural inputs, and education to promote sustainable farming practices.

o    IFFCO, owned by over 36,000 member cooperatives, is the largest fertilizer cooperative in the world. It produces more than 8 million metric tons of fertilizers annually, directly benefiting millions of farmers in India.

  • Indian Cooperative Movement (ICM):

o    Type: Cooperative Union

o    Success Story: The Indian Cooperative Movement is a federation of cooperatives working to promote cooperative values and principles. It plays a vital role in coordinating the activities of various cooperative societies in India, fostering cooperation and development.

o    The Indian Cooperative Movement is an umbrella organization representing over 600,000 cooperatives in India. It plays a pivotal role in coordinating cooperative activities across sectors, contributing to the livelihoods of millions.

  • SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association):

o    Type: Women’s Cooperative

o    Success Story: SEWA is a renowned women’s cooperative that empowers self-employed women across various sectors, including agriculture, crafts, and small businesses. It provides access to financial services, skill development, and advocacy, improving the socio-economic status of women.

o    SEWA, with a membership of nearly 2 million self-employed women, provides access to financial services, healthcare, and employment opportunities. It has been instrumental in improving the economic status of women in India.

  • Punjab State Cooperative Bank (PSCB):

o    Type: Cooperative Bank

o    Success Story: The Punjab State Cooperative Bank is a prominent cooperative bank that serves the financial needs of farmers and the rural population in Punjab. It offers agricultural credit, savings accounts, and other banking services, contributing to the economic well-being of its members.

o    PSCB serves over 4,000 primary cooperative societies and millions of farmers in Punjab. It has provided agricultural credit amounting to hundreds of crores of rupees, supporting agricultural activities and rural development in the state.

These examples represent the diversity and success of cooperative societies in India, embodying the core cooperative principles of self-help, democratic governance, and the collective pursuit of common economic and social objectives.

The Multistate Cooperative Societies (MSCSs) Amendment Bill, 2022

Key issues regarding the bill:

  • The bill is said to be culminating into the concentration of power of the central government, which may impact the autonomy and free functioning of multistate cooperative societies creating a potential for their misuse.
  • Granting veto powers to the central and state governments over the redemption of their shareholding could potentially undermine the principle of Democratic member control and organizational autonomy which form the essence of cooperative societies.
  • It imposes financial burden on successful cooperatives to support struggling ones which can potentially undermine growth capacity of well-functioning cooperatives.

Task Force on Revival of Cooperative Credit Institutions (2004)

  • Formed by the honorable Prime Minister in the year 2004 for the revival of cooperatives in India, so as to holistically overcome the various challenges they face.
  • Based on the recommendations of the above task force, the Union Government has introduced The Constitutional (One Hundred and Sixth Amendment) Bill, 2006 in the Parliament on 22nd May, 2006.
  • The Task Force on the Revival of Cooperative Credit Institutions in its Report (December, 2004) examined the enabling legislations for cooperatives in detail and suggested a Model Mutually Aided Cooperative Societies Act to be adopted by all the States. The salient features of the draft model law suggested by the Task Force are as under:

o   The law is based on internationally accepted principles of cooperation and ensures that cooperatives function in a democratic manner.

o   The model law is member-centric. It ensures that members are in control of their organisation, and that they can hold accountable those they elect. It places responsibilities on members, and it gives them the right to manage their own affairs, based on the responsibilities that they choose to fix for themselves.

o   It places responsibilities on elected Directors in such a manner, that elected positions are positions of responsibility and not only of power and authority. Accountability of the Directors to the General Body is in-built, and any lapse is treated seriously. A Director’s behaviour is expected to be reported to the General Body for its scrutiny.

o   The Model Law makes it clear that cooperative societies are not the creatures of the State–nor are they statutory creatures. Membership in these societies is voluntary and therefore as in the case of Companies, Societies, Trade Unions, and unincorporated Associations, elections should be an internal affair of each organisation.

o   For similar reasons, an Audit Board is not envisaged under this law. The General Body of each cooperative society will appoint an auditor, and the responsibilities of the auditor have been made explicit. Presentation of copies of the audited statements of accounts for the previous year, along with audit objections, to each member has been made compulsory.

o   Recruitment of staff will be the responsibility of each cooperative society. Common cadres and recruitment boards are not envisaged. Just as other forms of citizens’-organisations (Companies, Societies, Trade Unions, unincorporated Associations) take responsibility for staff recruitment and personnel management, cooperative societies too should have the right to make all staff related decisions. Labour laws are expected to apply.

o   Profit (surplus) and loss (deficit) are to be shared among members. Cooperatives are expected to be professionally managed in the truest sense of the phrase, as Directors have to face their General Body each year and recommend surplus/ deficit sharing to members.

o   The law envisages creation of cooperative societies based on mutual aid and trust amongst members. While cooperative societies are permitted to accept member savings and deposits, and borrowings from others, they are not permitted to accept savings from non-members. In case a cooperative wish to accept public (non-voting member) deposits, it will need to be licensed by the RBI and follow such other regulatory norms as prescribed by the RBI.

o   The manner of recovery of dues from members is required to be in-built in the Articles of Association.




TOPIC- NOBEL PRIZE IN THE FIELD OF PHYSICS

THE CONTEXT: The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, and Anne L’Huillier “for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electro dynamics in matter”. This article explains in detail the various aspects of the work of these Nobel laureates from the UPSC perspective.

THE NOBEL LAUREATES

The three Nobel Laureates in Physics 2023 are being recognised for their experiments, which have given humanity new tools for exploring the world of electrons inside atoms and molecules.

  • Their work on the development of attosecond pulses of light has revolutionized our understanding of the fundamental processes of physics and chemistry. Attoseconds are extremely short units of time, one attosecond is equal to one billionth of a billionth of a second. Attosecond pulses of light are so short that they can be used to capture the motion of electrons inside atoms and molecules.
  • Attosecond pulses of light allow scientists to see the motion of electrons in real time. This has led to a deeper understanding of a wide range of phenomena, including the dynamics of chemical reactions, the properties of materials, and the behavior of electrons in lasers.
  • Attosecond science is still a young field, but it has the potential to revolutionize many areas of science and technology. For example, attosecond pulses of light could be used to develop new materials, improve the efficiency of solar cells, and create new medical imaging techniques.

 

  • Pierre Agostini (France):Professor, Ohio State University, USA
  • Ferenc Krausz (Hungary): Professor, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Germany
  • Anne L’Huillier (France):Professor, Lund University, Sweden

 NOBEL LAUREATES IN THE FIELD OF PHYSICS

YEAR

PERSON

TOPIC

2022
  • Alain Aspect, John Clauser, and Anton Zeilinger
  • for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science
2021
  • Syukuro Manabe and Klaus Hasselmann
  • Giorgio Parisi
  • for the physical modelling of Earth’s climate, quantifying variability and reliably predicting global warming
  • for the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales
2020
  • Roger Penrose
  • Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez
  • for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity
  • for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy
2019
  • James Peebles
  • Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz
  • for theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology
  • for the discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star
2018
  • Arthur Ashkin
  • Gérard Mourou and Donna Strickland
  • for the optical tweezers and their application to biological systems
  • for their method of generating high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses
2017
  • Rainer Weiss, Barry C. Barish and Kip S. Thorne
  • for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves
2016
  • David J. Thouless, F. Duncan M. Haldane and J. Michael Kosterlitz
  • for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter
2015
  • Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald
  • for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have mass
2014
  • Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura
  • for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources

ABOUT ATTOSECOND

  • An attosecond (as) is a unit of time equal to 1×10−18 of a second (one quintillionth of a second). It is the shortest unit of time that has been measured directly.
  • Attoseconds are so short that they are difficult to comprehend. To put it in perspective, an attosecond is to a second what a second is to about 31.71 billion years.
  • Attosecond pulses of light are even shorter. They can be as short as a few attoseconds, which means that they can be used to capture the motion of electrons inside atoms and molecules.
  • It is a rapidly growing field with the potential to revolutionize our understanding of the fundamental processes of physics and chemistry. It has also the potential to lead to the development of new technologies, such as attosecond microscopes and attosecond lasers.

Attosecond pulses have been used to study a wide range of phenomena, including:

  • The dynamics of chemical reactions
  • The properties of materials
  • The behavior of electrons in lasers
  • The interactions between light and matter

WHAT IS THE ATTOSECOND PULSES?

  • It is extremely short pulses of light that last only a few attoseconds (one attosecond is equal to one quintillionth of a second). They are so short that they can be used to capture the motion of electrons inside atoms and molecules.
  • It is generated using a variety of techniques, including high harmonic generation (HHG) and four-wave mixing (FWM). In HHG, a powerful laser pulse is focused onto a gas. The laser pulse ionizes the gas atoms, creating free electrons. The electrons are then accelerated by the laser field and interact with the gas atoms to produce high-energy photons. These photons are the attosecond pulses of light.
  • In FWM, three laser pulses are focused onto a gas. The interaction of the three laser pulses produces a fourth laser pulse, which is the attosecond pulse.

WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF ATTOSECOND PHYSICS?

  • It can be used to study the dynamics of chemical reactions and the properties of materials at the atomic and molecular level.
  • It can be used to study the interaction of light with matter, which is essential for understanding how solar cells work.
  • It can be used to develop new medical imaging techniques that can image biological systems at the atomic and molecular level.
  • It can be used to study the behavior of electrons in quantum systems. This information could be used to develop new quantum computers that are much more powerful than conventional computers.

RESEARCH ON ATTOSECONDS

  • It is providing shorter snapshots of atoms and molecules, attosecond spectroscopy has helped researchers understand electron behaviour in single molecules, such as how electron charge migrates and how chemical bonds between atoms breaks.
  • The attosecond technology has been applied to studying how electrons behave in liquid water as well as electron transfer in solid-state semiconductors.
  • As researchers continue to improve their ability to produce attosecond light pulses, they’ll gain a deeper understanding of the basic particles that make up matter.

WHAT IS ELECTRON DYNAMICS?

  • It is the study of the motion of electrons in atoms, molecules, materials, and devices. It is a field of physics that is concerned with the fundamental processes that govern the behavior of electrons, such as their interactions with other electrons, with light, and with the electromagnetic field.
  • It is a very important field of physics, as it has many applications in other fields, such as chemistry, materials science, and electronics. For example, the understanding of electron dynamics is essential for the development of new materials, such as semiconductors and superconductors, and for the development of new electronic devices, such as transistors and lasers.

HOW DID SCIENTISTS ACHIEVE ATTOSECOND PULSE GENERATION?

  • Scientists achieved attosecond pulse generation by developing new techniques to create and measure extremely short pulses of light. Attosecond pulses are pulses of light that last only a few attoseconds (one attosecond is equal to one quintillionth of a second). They are so short that they can be used to capture the motion of electrons inside atoms and molecules.
  • One of the most common techniques for generating attosecond pulses is high harmonic generation (HHG). In HHG, a powerful laser pulse is focused onto a gas. The laser pulse ionizes the gas atoms, creating free electrons. The electrons are then accelerated by the laser field and interact with the gas atoms to produce high-energy photons. These photons are the attosecond pulses of light.

How high harmonic generation (HHG) works to generate attosecond pulses?

  1. A powerful laser pulse is focused onto a gas.
  2. The laser pulse ionizes the gas atoms, creating free electrons.
  3. The electrons are accelerated by the laser field and interact with the gas atoms to produce high-energy photons.
  4. These photons are the attosecond pulses of light.

THE CONCLUSION: In future the Nobel Prize in Physics will continue to recognize and reward groundbreaking research in attosecond physics, as well as other areas of physics that are essential for the universe and the development of new technologies. These areas include quantum mechanics, astrophysics, materials science, and climate science.

MAINS QUESTION

Q 1. Discuss the potential applications of attosecond physics in the development of advanced electronic devices and energy storage technologies.

Q 2. Describe the work for which the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. What implications does this work have for scientific and technological advancements?

UPSC CIVIL SERVICES EXAMINATION PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Who among the following scientists shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with his son? (2008)

(a)    Max Planck

(b)    Albert Einstein

(c)    William Henry Bragg

(d)    Enrico Fermi

Ans: (c)

Q. Nobel Prize winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)

(a)    Metallurgy

(b)    Meteorology

(c)    Environmental protection

(d)    Genetics

Ans: (d)

Mains

Q 1. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (2021)

Q 2. Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics. (2018)




TOPIC: THE FUTURE DELIMITATION AND THE CHALLENGES TO FEDERALISM

THE CONTEXT: Delimitation and readjustment of the seats in the Lok Sabha is due after 2026. Given the differential population matrix of northern and southern states such an exercise can lead to reduced political representation of southern states. As the time for reconsidering the freeze on delimitation exercise is coming closer, southern states are concerned that they would be marginalized further. This article analyses the various issues related to upcoming delimitation from the UPSC perspective.

THE CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS REGARDING THE DELIMITATION

  • Article 81 of the Constitution states that Lok Sabha constituencies in the country should be equal by the size of the population.
  • As per Article 82, after every census, the Parliament will enact a Delimitation Act. Once the Act is enacted, the Central Government sets up a Delimitation Commission.
  • As per Article 170, the states also get classified into territorial constituencies after every census, according to the Delimitation Act.
  • Based on the 1971 Census, the number of Lok Sabha constituencies for States was determined and frozen for the next 25 years through the 42nd Amendment Act 1976.
  • In 2001, through the 84th Amendment Act, the freeze on the number of constituencies for each state was further prolonged until the first census after 2026.

REASONS FOR FREEZING OF SEATS

  • An updated Census has been published every decade since 1951, but a Delimitation Commission has been set up on only four occasions – 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002
  • In its 1973 order, the Commission raised the maximum Lok Sabha members to 545 to account for population growth and the formation of new states.
  • Since then, the number of members has remained unchanged. Of the 545 members, 543 were directly elected and two were nominated posts for the Anglo-Indian community, until a 2019 Constitutional Amendment removed this provision. So, the Lok Sabha strength now is 543.
  • In 1976, the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution froze the number of Lok Sabha seats and put off delimitation for 25 years until the 2001 Census under Article 82.
  • The Congress government, at the time, cited “family planning policies” as the reason for this suspension. The government stated that it did not want to punish states with effective population control measures.
  • As their representation in the Lok Sabha would fall compared to states with high populations. The idea was to give states time to reduce their fertility rates and ensure parity across the country.
  • But in 2002, delimitation was delayed for another 25 years, with the 84th Amendment under the BJP government. Though constituency boundaries were redrawn to account for changes in population according to the 2001 Census, the total number of Lok Sabha seats and the number of seats allotted to each state remained unchanged.
  • The Amendment froze the allocation of seats in Article 82 until “the relevant figures for the first Census taken after the year 2026 have been published”.
  • In 2008, it seemed to be reverting the freeze on Delimitation, but it was done only to remove the freeze for the SC and ST seats and adjust them according to the 2001 Census. It was done via the Election Commission’s Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008.

REIGNITING THE DEBATE

In Indian federal democracy, a State’s relative population size gains political and economic significance. In sharp contrast to the northern States, population control has been achieved in the southern States through social development and economic growth. But as the delimitation exercise is set to begin, it seems to be unfair to southern states, which has reignited debate that allotting seats based on population would be a great injustice to states that have excelled in population control.

UPCOMING DELIMITATION

  • If the Lok Sabha seats are reallocated in proportion to each state’s projected population in 2026, all the South Indian states would be losing seats.
  • As, the share of the southern states in India’s population has drastically come down from 24.8% in 1971 to 19.9% in 2021 while for UP and Bihar it has gone up from 23% to 26%.
  • Thus, the delimitation exercise of delimitation could reduce the political influence of the southern states.
  • This political marginalisation of the south for demographic reasons could create tensions, some of which are already visible on the financial front.

NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

  • There is already a north south divide due to economic, social, political and historical factors. For example, the 15th Finance Commission use of the 2011 population census as a basis for the devolution of taxes has already marginalized southern states with less share of funds.
  • The exercise to delimit parliamentary constituencies could deepen the north-south divide.

POLITICAL DYNAMICS

  • The ruling party at the centre gain more seats in elections in the northern of country compared to the south.
  • The future delimitation can increase the number of seats allotted to northern states compared to southern states which will be beneficial for incumbent ruling party at the centre.

HIGHER STAKE OF BIG STATES

  • It is more likely to be seen that after delimitation, big states like Uttar Pradesh is likely to get up to 143 seats, a 79 per cent increase, while smaller state like Kerala’s representation will remain unchanged and that of Tamil Nadu will increase only by 10 seats.
  • Thus, similar to the existing condition where bigger states have more say in the formation of union government due to their large representation will continue.
  • Even delimitation may give them more power with an increase in a number of seats, leading to centralization of power at the centre.

SUB REGIONALISM

  • As further readjustment of seats may lead to more power to fewer big states, the other smaller states, whether in the South or North east, may feel left out.
  • This division of power can lead to sub-regionalism, which can even lead to feeling of separation and secessionism and can create condition for threat to internal security.
  • Therefore, as recognising a person’s equal voice in the democratic process is important, recognising the regional balance of power in a federal structure is also essential.

THE CONCERNS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES

DIFFERENCE IN POPULATION GROWTH RATES

  • The population growth rates differ between the non-Hindi-speaking southern States and the Hindi-speaking northern States.
  • Between 1971 and 2011, the proportion of the population of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh increased from 44% to 48.2%.
  • Whereas the proportion of population of the five southern States (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana) declined from 24.9% to 21.1%.
  • A population-based delimitation of Lok Sabha constituencies has been long opposed by political parties in the south. They have argued that a population-based delimitation will give an undue advantage to northern and central states in the Lok Sabha.

DECREASED POLITICAL REPRESENTATION

  • Based on the previous census data and population projection, after the 2026 delimitation, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh will have a total of 222 MPs(143+79), while four south Indian states will have a combined representation of 165 in the Lok Sabha.

  • If equal size of Lok Sabha constituencies by population is enforced today as in the population projections of 2023, the five southern States will lose 23 seats, while the northern States will gain 37.
  • In other words, the proportion of political representation of northern States will increase by 6.81% and that of southern States will decline by 4.24%.
  • Southern states which have implemented family planning programs more effectively than the states in North India would be penalized through reduced political representation.

THE NEED FOR DELIMITATION

ISSUE OF INAPPROPRIATE REPRESENTATION

  • There is a notable difference between the number of parliamentary seats and the extent of population in a geographical unit.
  • This leads to the underrepresentation of the area with the higher population as, despite the increase in population, the number of seats is still the same as decided in 1971.

SUBVERTING DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES

  • There are issues of distorted political representation, which results in unequal value of votes of citizens. For instance, an MP from the Gangetic Valley represents about 25% more people than a non-Gangetic MP.
  • To ensure democratic principles, it is necessary that every person vote should have equal value.

CONCERNS WITH EXCESSIVE FEDERALISM

  • Due to the freeze of seats, there is an overrepresentation of citizens in smaller states in comparison to bigger states, which indicates a minority of states making important decisions on national policies.
  • For example, studies based on 2011 census indicate that Kerala, Tamil Nadu and undivided Andhra is over represented by 17 seats while UP, Bihar and Rajasthan is under represented by  19 seats.

INABILITY OF MPs TO ADDRESS THEIR CONSTITUENCIES

  • There is an increasing issue of increasing the distance between government and the governed. According to a study, India has one MP in the Lok Sabha for 2.2 million people, while the USA has one Congressman for 0.6 million people.
  • If there are so many people on one MP, they will not be able to communicate with people and cannot address their concerns which will affect governance and administration.

HOW TO ADDRESS THE CHALLENGES?

GRADUAL SHIFT IN POLITICAL POWER

  • There is a need of gradual shift in political power, for which there should be a mechanism for reallocation of seats after each decennial census.
  • For, now there is no need to further delay the process of delimitation as change in demography needs to be reflected in seat allocations.

STRENGTHENING THE SMALLER STATES

  • There are concerns that smaller states will be dominated by bigger states. Hence, a second state reorganization is needed.

INCREASE RAJYA SABHA POWER

  • There needs to expand the role and composition of Rajya Sabha. Here, steps as direct elections, restoring domicile requirements, fixed number of seats can be taken in this regard.
  • Also, a federal arrangement need to be devised to enable equal representation for each state, so that large states do not dominate the proceedings in the House.

INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF SEATS IN LOK SABHA

  • There is a need of increase in number of seats in Lok Sabha to have adequate representation of people in the Parliament.
  • It will also increase the responsiveness of Members of Parliament in their respective constituencies.

POPULATION CONTROL

  • There is an urgent need for family planning in the states with higher populations. Although various government reports including NFHS V have observed that India is on course to achieve replacement level fertility rate, the TFR of Bihar (2.98) and Uttar Pradesh (2.35) is still  high compared to southern states which is lower than 2.
  • Northern states should follow the success of southern states in fertility reduction. Government and civil societies in Northern states needs to proactively act to update entire state apparatus to achieve population balance.

STATUS OF TOTAL FERTILITY RATE(TFR) IN INDIA

  • According to the NFHS-5 conducted from 2019-20, even though India’s overall decline of fertility rate has been encouraging and have achieved TFR of 2.
  • There are wide inter-regional variations with five states still not having achieved replacement-level of fertility of 2.1.
  • These states are Bihar (2.98), Meghalaya (2.91), Uttar Pradesh (2.35), Jharkhand (2.26) and Manipur (2.17). Sikkim and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have the lowest Total Fertility Rate (TFR). While, Southern states have TF R rate of less than 2.

THE CONCLUSION: It is not desirable to further delay delimitation and readjustment of legislative seats in the Lok Sabha and assemblies. This requires a consensus based approach involving all relevant stakeholders to devise an appropriate method for reconciling imperative of democracy and federalism. States that have effectively controlled their population should not be penalised through reduced political representation after delimitation in subsequent periods.

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Can we say that the new delimitation exercise post 2026 create asymmetry in the political representation between the North and the South? Suggest measures for their equitable representation in the Lok Sabha.

Q.2 In the federal political system, changes in population geography have a lasting impact on the political and economic geography. Explain.




TOPIC- PRIMARY HEALTHCARE NEEDS SHARP FOCUS TO ERADICATE COMMUNICABLE DISEASE FROM INDIA

THE CONTEXT: The health sector being a crucial arena of discussion at G20 Summit 2023 held in Delhi, the Prime Minister launched the sixth edition of One Earth and One Health Advantage Healthcare India 2023, where he reinstated India’s vision and commitment towards universal health coverage not just for humans but for their entire ecosystem. Although the initiatives are laudable, however, in order to achieve the objective of one health and universal health coverage it is necessary to focus on primary health care. This article analyses various aspects of primary healthcare in India from the UPSC perspective.

STATUS OF NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS) AND RELATED INITIATIVE

  • Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, tend to be of long duration and are the result of a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental and behavioural factors.
  • India is experiencing a rapid health transition with a rising burden of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCD) surpassing the burden of Communicable diseases like water-borne or vector borne diseases, TB, HIV, etc.
  • The four major NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) and diabetes which share four behavioural risk factors – unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity, and use of tobacco and alcohol.
  • A study ‘India: Health of the Nation’s States – The India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative in 2017’ by Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) estimated that the proportion of deaths due to NCDs in India have increased from 37.9% in 1990 to 61.8% in 2016.
  • Recently, the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS) programme has been renamed National Programme for Prevention & Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) for widening coverage and expansion.
  • Now, the NP-NCD Scheme subsume all types of NCDs with an addition of diseases to the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS), such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, chronic kidney disease etc.

GOVT POLICY AND SCHEMES RELATED WITH PRIMARY HEALTH CARE:

  • Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs): HWC are created under Ayusham Bharat Programme by converting the existing primary health centres and subcentres. They provide comprehensive primary health care (CPHC) including a child and maternal health services, non-communicable diseases, and also diagnostic services, and free essential drugs.
  • Primary Health Centre (PHC): Under the National Health Mission (NHM), Primary Health Centre (PHC) are established to cover a population of 30,000 in rural areas and 20,000 in hilly, tribal and desert areas. PHCs are established to cover defined population.
  • Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK): The scheme is to benefit pregnant women and infant who access Government health facilities for their delivery and post-delivery care.
  • Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0:  It seeks to address the challenging situation of malnutrition among children up to the age of 6 years, adolescent girls (14-18 years) and pregnant and lactating women. The scheme is open to all eligible beneficiaries and the only pre-condition is that the beneficiary has to be registered at the nearest Anganwadi centre with Aadhaar identification.

ONE EARTH AND ONE HEALTH ADVANTAGE HEALTHCARE INDIA 2023:

  • One Earth One Health is a holistic approach that emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health.
  • Recently, the sixth edition of One Earth and One Health has been launched for universal health coverage not just for humans but for their entire ecosystem. It aligns with India’s G20 Presidency theme of ‘One Earth, One Family, One Future’.
  • It was organised in partnership with the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI), the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
  • Its primary objective is to showcase India’s competence in the medical value travel industry as a provider of Value-Based Healthcare services and exporter of Healthcare Workforce.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Communicable diseases are illnesses caused by viruses or bacteria that people spread to one another through contact with contaminated surfaces, bodily fluids, blood products, insect bites, or through the air. There are many examples of communicable diseases. Some examples of reportable communicable disease include HIV, hepatitis A, B and C, measles, salmonella, measles, and blood-borne illnesses.

  • State of Communicable Diseases in India:

India, a country with a population of over 1.3 billion, has made significant strides in various facets of healthcare. Yet, communicable diseases remain a looming challenge, causing a substantial number of deaths and illnesses annually. From diseases like tuberculosis, which has long haunted the nation, to more recent challenges like the dengue and chikungunya outbreaks, India’s battle against infectious diseases is ongoing.

OVERVIEW OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE IN INDIA

Primary Healthcare: The First Line of Defense

Primary health care (PHC) refers to a broad range of health services provided by medical professionals in the community. This means universal health care is accessible to all individuals and families in a community.

General health-care practitioners, nurses, pharmacists, and allied health-care providers are exclusive components of the primary health-care team. Basically, the PHC service is the process and practice of immediate health services, including diagnosis and treatment of a health condition, support in managing long-term health care, including chronic conditions such as diabetes. PHC also includes regular health checks, health advice when an unhealthy person seeks support for ongoing care.

With a vast rural populace and dense urban settlements, primary healthcare becomes even more significant for India. It’s not just about treating diseases but preventing them, educating the public, and ensuring early intervention.

Effective PHC systems are characterized by the following:

  • Accessibility:PHC facilities should be accessible to all members of the community, regardless of their income or social status.
  • Affordability:PHC services should be affordable to all members of the community.
  • Quality:PHC services should be of high quality, and PHC workers should be skilled and knowledgeable.
  • Comprehensiveness:PHC services should be comprehensive and include preventive care, curative care, and rehabilitative care.

Why Strengthening Primary Healthcare is Imperative

While tertiary healthcare institutions, like specialized hospitals, play a role in treating advanced stages of diseases, the importance of primary healthcare cannot be overstated.

In a country as vast and diverse as India, the eradication of communicable diseases necessitates a bottom-up approach, where Primary Healthcare Centers (PHCs) become the epicenters of change.

By bolstering our primary healthcare systems, we can ensure that every Indian, regardless of their socio-economic background or geographical location, has access to timely and effective medical care.

GLOBALIZATION AND THE SPREAD OF DISEASE

In the age of globalization, the world has become a smaller place. Borders are more porous, and people, goods, and services move across countries with ease. While this brings countless benefits, it also comes with its share of challenges, particularly in the realm of health. Communicable diseases, which once were localized, can now spread globally within days, as evidenced by recent pandemics.

  • The Indian Context: Localized Spreading

For a country like India, with its diverse landscapes, dense urban settlements, and vast rural expanses, the concept of ‘local globalization’ is especially pertinent. A disease outbreak in one part of the country can quickly spread to other parts, given the high mobility of the population. This inter-state and inter-district transmission can be likened to global disease transmission but on a national scale.

THE SWOT ANALYSIS OF INDIA’S PRIMARY HEALTHCARE IN ADDRESSING COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

STRENGTHS

  • Vast Network of Healthcare Centers: India boasts a vast network of primary healthcare centers (PHCs), sub-centers, and community health centers (CHCs) spread across the country, reaching even the remotest regions.
  • Diverse Healthcare Workforce: From ASHA workers to specialized doctors, the healthcare workforce in India is diverse, ensuring varied expertise at the grassroots level.
  • Government Initiatives: Over the years, the Indian government has launched various health schemes like Ayushman Bharat, which focus on making healthcare accessible to all.
  • Traditional Medical Knowledge: India’s rich heritage in traditional medicine, including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, offers alternative methods for disease prevention and treatment.

WEAKNESSES

  • Infrastructure Gaps: Many PHCs and CHCs lack adequate infrastructure, from basic amenities to specialized equipment.
  • Staff Shortages: Vacant positions, especially in rural areas, make it challenging to deliver consistent healthcare services.
  • Inadequate Training: While the workforce is vast, there’s often a gap in training, particularly in understanding and managing emerging diseases.
  • Lack of Technology Integration: Modern health technologies, including telemedicine and health informatics, are yet to be fully integrated into primary healthcare.

OPPORTUNITIES

  • Digital Health: With the rising penetration of smartphones and internet connectivity, there’s immense potential for digital health solutions, from remote consultations to health apps.
  • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Collaborations between the government and private entities can bring in investments, expertise, and innovative healthcare delivery models.
  • Community Engagement: By involving communities in health decision-making, there’s potential for more tailored, effective health interventions.
  • Global Collaborations: Partnerships with international health bodies can bring in global best practices, funding, and expertise.

THREATS

  • Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases: New diseases, like COVID-19, or the resurgence of old ones, like tuberculosis, pose constant challenges to primary healthcare.
  • Climate Change: Altered weather patterns can lead to the spread of vector-borne diseases, challenging existing healthcare strategies.
  • Healthcare Funding Cuts: Economic challenges might lead to reduced healthcare budgets, impacting service delivery.
  • Socio-cultural Barriers: Misinformation, superstitions, or resistance to certain medical practices can hinder effective disease management at the grassroots level.

CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECTING PRIMARY HEALTHCARE

Primary healthcare (PHC) forms the bedrock of a nation’s health system. Serving as the first point of contact for individuals with the healthcare system, its role is pivotal in disease prevention, health promotion, and timely intervention. A neglected primary healthcare system can have dire consequences, ranging from health to socio-economic impacts.

RISE IN DISEASE TRANSMISSION

  • Without robust PHC systems, routine immunization drives can suffer, early disease detection can be compromised, and timely interventions can be delayed.
  • According to a WHO report from 2021, disruptions in essential health services due to the COVID-19 pandemic could result in an additional 200,000 child deaths and 12,000 maternal deaths every month globally. Much of these deaths can be attributed to weakened primary healthcare services.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

  • Loss in Productivity: Sick employees or those taking care of sick family members can lead to reduced working hours and absenteeism. A study published in Health Affairs in 2020 estimated that absenteeism due to illness can cost the global economy around $530 billion annually.
  • Increased Healthcare Costs: With a compromised PHC, there’s a higher reliance on tertiary care, which is often more expensive and may involve advanced treatments due to delayed interventions resulting in high out of the pocket expenditure. According to the World Bank, India spends less than 2% of its GDP on healthcare. This is one of the lowest levels of healthcare spending in the world. As a result, many people in India are unable to afford to access healthcare services.

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS

Disruption of Communities: High disease prevalence can lead to stigmatization, loss of workforce, and even community displacement in extreme cases. Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant concern in India.

  • In 2020, the Global Tuberculosis Report cited an estimated 2.64 million TB cases in India. Neglected PHC can result in delayed TB diagnosis, thereby affecting community health. Stigmatized diseases can lead to reduced social interactions, community cohesion loss, and even mental health issues.
  • According to the National Sample Survey, the poorest 20% of the population in India accounts for only 9% of total healthcare spending. The richest 20% of the population, on the other hand, accounts for 42% of total healthcare spending. This means that the poorest people in India are less likely to be able to afford healthcare services than the richest people in India.

Impact on Families: Families bear the emotional, financial, and physical burden of caring for sick members. As per a report by the World Economic Forum in 2021, families in Southeast Asia, including India, spent approximately 7.3% of their monthly income on healthcare, a number that escalates with weak PHC.

CHALLENGES IN NAVIGATING THE COMPLEX LANDSCAPE OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE IN INDIA

LIMITED RESOURCES AND FUNDING

  • Despite the vastness of the healthcare system, funding remains a pivotal concern. The allocation for healthcare in India’s budget, as a percentage of GDP, has historically been low (less than 2%) compared to global standards.
  • Underfunded PHCs also result in compromised services, lack of essential medications, inadequate diagnostic tools, and sub-par infrastructure.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CULTURAL BARRIERS

  • India’s diverse terrain, from hilly regions to remote villages, poses logistical challenges. Additionally, cultural differences, language barriers, and traditional beliefs can influence healthcare-seeking behavior.
  • These barriers can lead to delayed treatments, reluctance in adopting preventive measures, and non-adherence to medical advice.

OVERBURDENED PHCS

  • With the population surge and the increasing burden of both communicable and non-communicable diseases, PHCs often cater to more patients than their capacity allows.
  • Overcrowding lead to reduced consultation times, long waiting periods, and potential misdiagnoses. Furthermore, healthcare workers under continuous stress are more prone to burnout.

TRAINED MEDICAL PERSONNEL

  • The demand for skilled healthcare professionals, particularly in rural areas, outstrips the supply. Specialized training for emerging diseases is also lacking. This gap can lead to mismanagement of diseases, reliance on under-qualified personnel, and decreased trust in the healthcare system.

FRAGMENTED HEALTHCARE DATA AND LACK OF INTEGRATION

  • The Indian healthcare system often operates in silos, with limited integration between primary, secondary, and tertiary care. Additionally, there’s a lack of unified health records. Fragmented data can hinder effective disease tracking, lead to repetitive diagnostic tests, and impede coordinated care.

RESISTANCE TO MODERN MEDICAL INTERVENTIONS

  • Misinformation, fuelled in part by myths, superstitions, and occasionally mistrust of modern medicine, poses hindrance to effective primary healthcare. Resistance can manifest in various ways, from vaccine hesitancy to reluctance in seeking timely medical interventions.

SUPPLY CHAIN INEFFICIENCIES

  • The timely availability of essential drugs, vaccines, and medical equipment can be compromised due to logistical issues, bureaucratic delays, or inadequate storage facilities. Inefficiencies can lead to stock-outs, hampering disease treatment and prevention efforts.

GOVERNANCE: THE BEDROCK OF EFFECTIVE DISEASE CONTROL

The rapid spread of diseases places an enormous responsibility on governance structures. Effective governance doesn’t just imply a reactive approach to outbreaks but necessitates a proactive stance, focusing on prevention, early detection, and rapid response.

Primary health infrastructures play a pivotal role in either curbing or exacerbating the spread of diseases. On the one hand, robust local health systems can quickly identify and contain outbreaks, reducing transmission rates. On the other hand, weak systems can result in delayed responses, furthering the spread and complicating treatment efforts.

Lack of foresight, underfunded health initiatives, and inadequate infrastructure can result in uncontrolled disease proliferation. Not only does this strain already overburdened healthcare systems, but it also leads to economic repercussions, hampers development, and erodes public trust in authorities.

Governance in healthcare isn’t merely about allocating funds or building infrastructure; it’s about orchestrating a symphony of diverse functions, stakeholders, and resources towards a unified goal of disease control and improved public health.

  • The Indian Duality: Central vs. State Governance: India’s federal structure necessitates a delicate balance between central and state healthcare policies. While the central government provides overarching guidelines and support, the implementation largely falls on state governments, each contending with unique demographics, health challenges, and resources.
  • The Role of Local Self-Governance Bodies: Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies play a pivotal role in health governance at the grassroots level. Their on-the-ground presence, understanding of local issues and direct engagement with communities make them instrumental in driving localized health initiatives.

The Analysis:

Continuous and comprehensive care provided by the primary health care team can provide effective health education and prevention interventions based on the medical and social needs of patients. This helps tackle risk factors and other social determinants of health, which in turn improves equity of health outcomes.

Drawing on these efforts to strengthen primary health care, efforts by states and the central government in India have been growing. At the state level, many have adopted varied models of primary health care like mohalla clinics in Delhi, Basti Dawakhana in Telangana, Apala dawakhana in Mumbai, and so on.

Nevertheless efficient and fully functionally primary health care facilities are distant in all regions. Neoliberalism and privatisation is to blame as proliferation of private hospitals and private clinics have drawn patients away from the public health system. In urban areas this phenomenon is prevalent although it has begun penetrating rural regions too.

This has led to a shift in focus from primary health care and the public health system to private health care. Efforts and strategic advancement is required to reinstate the importance and efficient working of primary health centres in the public health system.

THE WAY FORWARD TOWARDS ROBUST HEALTH GOVERNANCE:

  • Political Will: The commitment of policymakers to address pressing health challenges. It translates into budgetary allocations, policy prioritizations, and the creation of a conducive environment for healthcare reforms.

          For instance, India’s commitment to eradicating polio, which was realized in 2014, was underpinned by political will. Leaders across the spectrum recognized the importance of the issue and mobilized resources accordingly.

  • Collaboration: Collaborative federalism ensures that health policies are not only universally designed but are also locally relevant. However, it also necessitates greater communication and coordination between the two levels of government to prevent duplication of efforts and ensure the best use of resources.

          For instance, The National Health Mission (NHM) is a central government initiative, but its execution is tailored by state governments based on regional health challenges.

  • Increased cooperation of International Organizations and NGOs: International organizations (like WHO, UNICEF) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) complement the efforts of the government. They bring in expertise, funds, and global best practices.

          For instance, The WHO played a pivotal role in India’s battle against tuberculosis, providing technical assistance, monitoring, and evaluation. Similarly, NGOs such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation have contributed significantly to various health campaigns in the country. India should reap the benefits of such cooperation ensuring that India’s health initiatives are in line with global standards and benefit from international experiences.

  • (Awareness, Investment and Rethinking) AIR Strategy: Awareness to bring back people’s knowledge about the importance of an efficient primary health care structure.

          Investment in this domain is the need of the hour. Considering the staggering importance of a primary health centre, it is crucial to have a uniform, mandatory and enthusiastic investment in the primary health structure to overcome the health challenges faced by the country. Without uniformity, a strengthening of the primary health system and universal health coverage is not possible.

Need to rethink and reassess the primary health care needs of the community. The current primary health care system in India follows the guidelines outlined by the Bhore Committee report of 1946. People, society and health care challenges have transitioned over the years. Today the health care needs of the people are different from what people in post-partition India required.

BEST PRACTICES

Kerala’s Community-Based Approach: Kerala stands out for its robust public health system. The state adopted a community-based approach, actively involving local governing bodies and leveraging a network of community health workers. The state boasts high literacy rates, low infant and maternal mortality rates, and has been at the forefront in managing various health crises effectively, including the Nipah virus outbreak and COVID-19.

Tamil Nadu’s Health System Strengthening: Tamil Nadu has invested in strengthening its health infrastructure, including establishing well-equipped PHCs, introducing electronic health records, and ensuring a regular supply of medicines through the Tamil Nadu Medical Services Corporation. The state consistently ranks high in healthcare indices, with reduced mortality rates and efficient disease management systems.

THE CONCLUSION: Despite commendable government initiatives, India’s primary healthcare system requires augmented focus. While strides have been made, many areas, especially rural regions, still face infrastructural deficits, shortage of medical professionals, and inadequate facilities. Fortifying primary healthcare isn’t just a necessity; it’s a cornerstone for achieving comprehensive nation building. SDG 3, which aims to ensure health and well-being for all, underscores the importance of universal health coverage, including quality primary healthcare. Meeting SDG targets is not merely about global commitment but also about ensuring holistic well-being for India’s vast populace. Strengthening primary healthcare is pivotal in this quest.

Mains Practice Questions:

Q.1 The effective and timely implementation of well-designed primary healthcare policies result in improved health outcomes. Comment.

Q.2 What are the challenges faced by Primary Healthcare in India? Discuss the Awareness, Investment and Rethinking (AIR) strategy for improving the efficacy of the primary healthcare services in India.

Additional Information




TOPIC: OUTBREAK OF NIPAH VIRUS

THE CONTEXT:  There have been frequent outbreaks of Nipah in Kerala in recent years. From September 12 to 15, 2023 India’s health ministry reported six laboratory-confirmed Nipah virus cases, including two deaths, in Kozhikode district in the southern state of Kerala. The WHO said as of September 27, 1,288 contacts of the confirmed cases were traced, including high-risk contacts and healthcare workers, who are under quarantine and monitoring for 21 days. This article explains in detail the various aspects of the outbreak of Nipah Virus from the UPSC perspective.

ABOUT NIPAH VIRUS

Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus that can infect both animals and humans. It is a member of the Henipavirus genus in the Paramyxoviridae family. NiV was first identified in 1999 during an outbreak of encephalitis and respiratory illness in pigs and humans in Malaysia and Singapore. Since then, outbreaks have occurred almost annually in parts of Asia, primarily Bangladesh and India. There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for Nipah virus infection although WHO has identified Nipah as a priority disease for the WHO Research and Development Blueprint. Intensive supportive care is recommended to treat severe respiratory and neurologic complications.

Source of Nipah Virus

  • The source of Nipah virus (NiV) is the fruit bat (genus Pteropus), also known as the flying fox.
  • Fruit bats are natural hosts of NiV and do not show any signs of illness when they are infected.

TRANSMISSION

  • Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus, meaning that it can be transmitted from animals to humans.
  • NiV is transmitted from fruit bats to other animals, such as pigs, and to people through direct contact with their bodily fluids or through contaminated food or water.
  • If a person then eats the infected pig meat, they can also become infected with NiV.
  • Human-to-human transmission of NiV is thought to occur through close contact with the secretions or excretions of an infected person. This can include contact with the person’s saliva, urine, feces, or respiratory secretions.

Historical Outbreaks:

  • In the first known NiV outbreak in Malaysia and Singapore in 1999, the virus was transmitted to people through contact with infected pigs. The outbreak resulted in more than 250 cases and over 100 deaths.
  • In subsequent NiV outbreaks in Bangladesh and India, the virus has been transmitted to people through a variety of routes, including:
    • Consumption of contaminated food or water, such as raw date palm juice contaminated with bat urine or saliva.
    • Direct contact with infected pigs or bats
    • Human-to-human transmission through direct contact with the blood, body fluids, or respiratory secretions of an infected person
  • In the 2001 NiV outbreak in Siliguri, India, transmission of the virus was also reported within a health-care setting, where 75% of cases occurred among hospital staff or visitors.

SYMPTOMS

The symptoms of Nipah virus (NiV) infection range from mild to severe. Some people may have no symptoms at all, while others may develop encephalitis, which is inflammation of the brain. Encephalitis can lead to a variety of neurological symptoms, including headache, fever, confusion, seizures, and coma. Death can occur in 40-75% of cases.

The initial symptoms of NiV infection typically appear 4-14 days after exposure to the virus. These symptoms are Fever, Headache, Muscle pain, Vomiting, Sore throat, Cough, Difficulty breathing.

WHAT IS THE TREATMENT FOR NIPAH VIRUS?

  • There is no specific treatment for Nipah virus (NiV) infection. Treatment is supportive and includes providing the patient with fluids, oxygen, and medications to control seizures and other symptoms.
  • In some cases, patients may need to be hospitalized in an intensive care unit (ICU) to receive specialized care.
  • Researchers are working to develop specific treatments for NiV infection, but there are currently no licensed drugs or vaccines available.

HOW CAN NIPAH VIRUS TRANSMISSION BE PREVENTED?

There is no vaccine available for Nipah virus (NiV) infection. Some measures to help prevent Nipah virus infection includes-

  • Raising awareness about its spread and transmission.
  • Avoid contact with sick bats and pigs.
  • Reducing the risk of bat-to-human transmission
  • Reducing the risk of animal-to-human transmission by using Gloves and other protective clothing.
  • Practice good hygiene, such as washing your hands frequently with soap and water.

IS THERE A VACCINE FOR NIPAH VIRUS?

  • No, there is no currently licensed vaccine for Nipah virus (NiV) infection. However, several NiV vaccines are in development, and some have shown promising results in preclinical and clinical trials.
  • One of the most promising NiV vaccines is an mRNA-based vaccine developed by Moderna. The vaccine has been shown to be safe and effective in animal studies, and it is currently in Phase 1 clinical trials in humans.
  • Another promising NiV vaccine is a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV) vaccine developed by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The vaccine has also been shown to be safe and effective in animal studies, and it is currently in Phase 2 clinical trials in humans.

Some of the potential treatments that are being investigated include:

  • Monoclonal antibodies: These are laboratory-produced proteins that can recognize and bind to specific viruses, such as NiV. Monoclonal antibodies can help to neutralize the virus and prevent it from infecting cells.
  • Antiviral drugs: These drugs can work by inhibiting the replication of the virus or by killing infected cells.
  • Vaccines: Vaccines can help to protect people from NiV infection by stimulating the body’s immune system to produce antibodies against the virus.

WHAT ARE MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES?

  • Monoclonal antibodies are laboratory-made proteins that mimic the behaviour of antibodies produced by the immune system to protect against diseases and foreign substances.
  • An antibody attaches itself to an antigen – a foreign substance, usually a disease-causing molecule – and helps the immune system eliminate it from the body.
  • Monoclonal antibodies are specifically designed to target certain antigens.
  • Niels K. Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler and César Milstein were awarded the medicine Nobel Prize in 1984 for their work on the “the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies”.

What is m102.4?

  • It is a “potent, fully human” monoclonal antibody that neutralises Hendra and Nipah viruses, both outside and inside of living organisms.
  • The antibody has passed phase-one clinical trials, which means that researchers tested it with a relatively small number of people to estimate the right dose of treatment that also doesn’t cause side effects.

How do monoclonal antibodies work?

  • Monoclonal antibodies are specifically engineered and generated to target a disease. They are meant to attach themselves to the specific disease causing antigen. An antigen is most likely to be a protein.
  • Köhler and Dr. Milstein, who established a generation of monoclonal antibodies for use in humans in 1975, used this principle to describe the hybridoma a fusion cell made up of B cells (white blood cells that produce antibodies) and myeloma cells (abnormal plasma cells). These hybrid cells allowed the researchers to produce a single antibody clone, which came to be known as a monoclonal antibody.
  • Most successful monoclonal antibodies during the pandemic were engineered to bind to the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The binding prevented the protein from exercising its regular functions, including its ability to infect other cells.
  • The initial technology of producing hybridoma in mice was unsustainable. Today, these antibodies are made using recombinant DNA technology. Here, the gene that codes for the monoclonal antibody’s binding region also known as the variable region is isolated from a B cell or synthesised in the laboratory.
  • This antibody is then introduced into a host cell, often a bacterium or a mammalian cell, using recombinant DNA technology (which involves manipulating DNA material outside an organism to obtain specific traits or characteristics).
  • The host cells, called bioreactors, produce large quantities of the monoclonal antibodies which are extracted, purified, and readied for use as desired.
  • Glycoproteins are one of the major components of viruses that cause diseases in humans. According to a research paper published in October 2020, the m102.4 monoclonal antibody binds itself to the immunodominant receptor-binding glycoprotein of the Nipah virus, potentially neutralising it.

ICMR RESPONSE TO NIPAH VIRUS OUTBREAK IN KERALA

The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has taken a number of steps to respond to the Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala. These steps include:

  • Sending a team of experts to Kerala to help with the outbreak response. The team is providing technical support to the state government on case management, contact tracing, and surveillance.
  • Providing diagnostic tests for Nipah virus to laboratories in Kerala. The ICMR has also provided training to laboratory staff on how to perform the tests.
  • Developing a vaccine for Nipah virus. The ICMR is working with a number of partners to develop a vaccine for Nipah virus. The vaccine is currently in preclinical trials, and the ICMR is hoping to start clinical trials in the near future.
  • Raising awareness of Nipah virus and how to prevent infection. The ICMR is working with the state government and other stakeholders to raise awareness of Nipah virus and how to prevent infection. This includes developing educational materials and conducting public awareness campaigns.
  • The ICMR is working with other national and international organizations to respond to the Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala. The ICMR is committed to working with all stakeholders to control the outbreak and protect public health.

HOW THE KERALA GOVERNMENT IS MANAGING THE OUTBREAK OF NIPAH VIRUS?

The Kerala government is managing the outbreak of Nipah virus in a comprehensive and effective manner, drawing on lessons learned from previous outbreaks in the state. The key components of the state’s response include:

  • Early detection and reporting:The government has issued guidelines to all healthcare facilities to be on the lookout for suspected cases of Nipah virus and to report them immediately to the Kerala’s Health department and control room. It is ensured that cases are identified and isolated early, which is essential for preventing further transmission of the virus.
  • Contact tracing and quarantine:The government is tracing all contacts of confirmed cases and placing them under quarantine for 21 days. It helps to identify and isolate any potential cases of infection, and to prevent the virus from spreading to the wider community.
  • Public health education and awareness: The government is conducting public health education campaigns to raise awareness about Nipah virus, its symptoms, and how to prevent infection. It includes distributing information materials, conducting door-to-door visits, and using social media platforms.
  • Clinical management:The government has established dedicated isolation wards for Nipah virus patients in major hospitals across the state. These wards are staffed by trained healthcare professionals and equipped with the necessary medical supplies and equipment to provide optimal care to patients.
  • Research and development:The government is supporting research and development into Nipah virus, including the development of vaccines and treatments. This is essential for improving the prevention and management of Nipah virus outbreaks in the future.

The Kerala government is working with the central government and the World Health Organization (WHO) to ensure that the outbreak is brought under control as quickly as possible. The state government’s response to the Nipah virus outbreak has been praised by public health experts and the WHO.

THE CHALLENGES FACED BY INDIA IN THE WAKE OF A NIPAH VIRUS OUTBREAK

RAPID IDENTIFICATION AND DIAGNOSIS

  • One of the primary challenges is the rapid identification and diagnosis of Nipah virus cases. Accurate and timely diagnosis is crucial for implementing control measures and providing appropriate care to patients.

INFECTION CONTROL

  • Managing and containing Nipah virus outbreaks require strict infection control measures, which can be challenging to implement, especially in resource-limited healthcare settings. Adequate supplies of personal protective equipment (PPE) and training for healthcare workers are essential.

PUBLIC AWARENESS

  • Ensuring that the public is aware of the risks associated with Nipah virus and understands preventive measures is critical. Raising public awareness and addressing misconceptions can be a challenge.

CONTACT TRACING AND QUARANTINE

  • Identifying and monitoring individuals who have come into contact with confirmed cases is vital to prevent further transmission. This can be logistically challenging and resource-intensive.

HEALTHCARE CAPACITY

  • A sudden outbreak can strain healthcare facilities and resources. Maintaining adequate healthcare capacity to manage Nipah virus cases while still providing care for other medical conditions is a significant challenge.

INFECTIONS FROM OUTSIDE THE COUNTRY

  • Given that infectious diseases do not respect borders, international collaboration with neighboring countries and global health organizations is crucial to effectively manage and contain Nipah virus outbreaks.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACTS

  • Outbreaks can have economic and social impacts, including travel restrictions, trade disruptions, and economic strain. Balancing public health measures with these broader impacts is a challenge.

WAY FORWARD

PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE PLANS

  • Develop and regularly update preparedness and response plans at the national, state, and local levels. These plans should include clear protocols for early detection, case management, contact tracing, and isolation measures.

SURVEILLANCE AND EARLY DETECTION

  • Strengthen surveillance systems to detect Nipah virus cases early. This includes improving laboratory testing capabilities and monitoring and reporting cases in both humans and animals.

RESEARCH AND VACCINE DEVELOPMENT

  • Continue research into the Nipah virus, including efforts to develop vaccines, antiviral treatments, and diagnostic tools. Collaborate with national and international research organizations to accelerate these efforts.

HEALTHCARE WORKER TRAINING

  • Conduct regular training and drills for healthcare workers to ensure they are well-prepared to handle Nipah virus cases. Adequate supplies of personal protective equipment (PPE) and training in its use are essential.

ONE HEALTH APPROACH

  • Implement a One Health approach that recognizes the interconnections between human, animal, and environmental health. This approach can help in monitoring and preventing zoonotic diseases like Nipah virus.

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR)

  • Be vigilant about the potential misuse of antibiotics during Nipah virus outbreaks, which can contribute to antimicrobial resistance. Promote judicious use of antibiotics.

RESEARCH ON BAT BEHAVIOR AND ECOLOGY

  • Conduct research on the behavior and ecology of fruit bats, the reservoir for Nipah virus, to inform strategies for minimizing the risk of spillover to humans.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

  • Develop and enforce regulatory frameworks for handling and transporting animals, especially those known to carry Nipah virus.

THE CONCLUSION: Nipah virus outbreaks in India represent a significant public health challenge. Such outbreaks not only threaten public health but pose major challenge for economic growth of the country. It is crucial for Indian health agencies to focus on preparedness, surveillance, early detection, and rapid response. There should be more investment in vaccine development and research for such zoonotic diseases.

UPSC PERSPECTIVE QUESTIONS

Q.1 How does the Nipah virus spread? Why Kerala has been the epicentre of sporadic outbreaks of Nipah virus? Is there a cure for this ‘emerging zoonotic disease’?

Q.2 Discuss the challenges of preventing and managing the outbreak of Nipah Virus in India.

UPSC PREVIOUS QUESTIONS                  

Q.1 COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. (UPSC- 2020)

Q.2 COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented tigation. devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic.  (UPSC- 2020)




TOPIC: ENERGY SECURITY AND GEOPOLITICS

THE CONTEXT– The first International Energy Association (IEA) Summit on Critical Minerals and Clean Energy was held at Paris, France on September 28, 2023. At the heart of its agenda remained the discussions on the challenges and opportunities in meeting the rising demand for minerals required for clean energy technologies.

As economic transformations accelerate, securing access to these materials will both impact and help shape geopolitics in the years to come. This article delves into the developments concerning energy geopolitics from multiple dimensions and analyses the options available to India in securing its national interests.

WHAT IS GEOPOLITICS?

The term “Geopolitics” can be broadly understood as the influence of geography and economics on the power status of a country and its relationships as well as decisions in the bilateral and/or multilateral arena.

Geopolitics seeks to study the effects of the Earth’s geography (human and physical) on politics and international relations.

It is concerned with questions of influence and power over space and territory. It uses geographical frames to make sense of world affairs.

WHY IS ENERGY AN IMPORTANT PART OF GEOPOLITICS?

  • Since the industrial revolution, the geopolitics of energy- who supplies it and securing ways for reliable access to those resources- has been influencing the geoeconomics of the nations and the world as a whole.
  • Energy is a fundamental resource that drives the global economy and shapes international relations which makes it a crucial component of geopolitics.
  • The availability, accessibility, and affordability of energy resources can have significant impacts on a country’s economic growth, political stability, and national security.
  • Energy resources are finite and unevenly distributed across the world, which has led to competition among countries for access to these resources. This competition has often resulted in geopolitical tensions, conflicts, and even wars. For instance: Gulf war of 1990s. One of the major factors behind Iran’s annexation of Kuwait was its interest in accessing the rich oil reserves of the latter.
  • Heartland Theory (Halford Mackinder) and Rimland Theory (Nicholas Spykman) concerning geopolitics highlighted the importance of gaining control over resource-rich regions if a country was to establish and expand influence/hegemony in the world. In this context, countries rich in oil, gas and other energy resources enjoy an edge over resource-strained countries in terms of power and influence.
  • For any country to secure its national interests such as energy security and industrial development, having a reliable supply chain of those energy resources is necessary which dictates the decisions of the country in bilateral/multilateral relationships.

CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS INVOLVING ENERGY AS PART OF GEOPOLITICS

Presenting a region-wise discussion on the geopolitics of energy-

EUROPE AND BLACK SEA REGION

Impacts of Russia-Ukraine war: The energy dynamics of the world have been shaped drastically and multidimensionally because of the Russia-Ukraine war-

  • Weaponisation of energy by Russia- It was no accident that Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, when it is the coldest and European demand for gas for heating buildings is the highest. Russia cut gas flows to the EU by around 80% in 2022, leaving the bloc with a significant shortfall in its energy mix, and a pressing need to find energy alternatives from other places.
  • Russia cut supplies to Europe in retaliation for western sanctions over its invasion of Ukraine. This resulted into surge in the prices of electricity, often linked to the price of gas. And that has pushed energy security to the top of the political agenda.
  • Attack on Nord Stream pipelines- Russia has been blamed for blast of the Nord Stream pipeline in Baltic Sea which supplied gas from Russia to the European nations like Germany. Extensive damage to Nord Stream 1 and 2 in the Danish exclusive economic zone has been reported in the wake of Russia-Ukraine war in 2022. This has raised energy security challenges for the European countries.
  • Discounted Russian oil and geopolitics- The energy resource-rich Russia took advantage of the war to increase its revenue and geopolitical influence through the sale of discounted oil to countries like India and China.

However, under the pressure from Western sanctions on crude oil, Russia in February 2023 decided to cut its production and supply of crude oil. Such disruptions in the energy supply chains and heavy dependence of nations on oil/gas imports leave them in a vulnerable situation.

  • Energy resources in the Black Sea- The Russia-Ukraine war which begun as Russian response to Ukraine’s intent to become a member of NATO, also has energy geopolitics as its core. Given the huge potential reserves of oil and natural gas in the Black Sea region, Russia intends to secure its access to the energy resources.

ARCTIC REGION

In a changing Arctic, this potentially resource-rich region could become another venue for geopolitical tensions. Russia has launched an ambitious plan to remilitarize the Arctic. Specifically, Russia is searching for evidence to prove its territorial claims to additional portions of the Arctic, so that it can move its Arctic borderline — which currently measures over 14,000 miles in length — further north.

  • Climate Change and new energy resources- The rapid loss of Arctic Sea ice at a much fast rate than the rest of the world has exposed new lands with high potential for energy resources like oil, natural gas, shale gas and methane hydrates. The United States Geological Survey estimates that the Arctic contains approximately 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil resources and about 30% of its undiscovered natural gas resources.
  • Race to control the Arctic energy resources- A race for access to the new potential energy reserves in the Arctic has been shaping the geopolitical agenda and moves of countries like the USA, Russia, China etc. Each party wishes to gain control over these energy resources that would translate into increased geopolitical influence of countries in the future.
  • New trade routes for energy- The thawing ice cover in the Arctic is opening new trade routes which are likely to be used as alternative energy trade routes between the countries in the Northern Hemisphere. Control of these routes could bring significant advantages to countries and corporations looking for a competitive edge.

SOUTH CHINA SEA (SCS)

Disputes between China and Southeast Asian countries:

  • Since the exploration in the early 20th century, more than 10 billion tonnes of Cenozoic oil and gas fields have been discovered, making the SCS region one of the giant oil and gas areas.
  • Estimates by the US Geological Survey and others indicate that about 60%-70% of the region’s hydrocarbon resources are gas.
  • Optimistic Chinese estimates of the region’s oil potential indicate as high as 213 billion barrels of hydrocarbons which are untapped. This figure is comparable with any high-value hydrocarbon producing region of the world, including the Persian Gulf region.
  • Energy security and hegemony in the international energy trade has been one of the factors behind increasing Chinese muscular power in the SCS region. E.g. growing standoffs between the Philippines and China.

GULF REGION

  • In the early twentieth century, the switch from coal to oil formed the basis to a century of geopolitical upheaval in the Middle East.
  • Gulf war (1990s)- One of the major factors behind Iran’s annexation of Kuwait was its interest in accessing the rich oil reserves of the latter.
  • Cartelisation- The control of OPEC and OPEC+ over the production of oil and the decision of its members to cut production and supply of crude oil has always been a cause of worry for the countries that remain dependent on imports of oil to meet their growing energy demands. The production cuts lead to hike in the oil prices.
  • Ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict- Iran, a major oil producer, backs the Hamas group which is at war with Israel. As the Hamas attack on Israel intensified, experts have expressed serious concerns on its impact on oil prices, gold prices, inflation and eventually the economy.
  • India-Middle East-Europe Corridor- This new counter-BRI initiative, launched at the sidelines of the recent G20 Summit (2023), has energy security and trade among its core objectives. Such regional projects shape the dynamics of international trade in energy. The IMEC will involve rail connectivity, shipping lines, high-speed data cables, and energy pipelines.

o    The volatile situation in the Middle East with the ongoing Israel-Palestine conflict could hit the corridor plans.

o    This ambitious project aims to create a seamless trade route connecting India, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel and Europe. The corridor spans diverse nations with varying political dynamics, interests and previous tensions.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND GEOPOLITICS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY:

RENEWABLE ENERGY

While the global community has ramped its efforts towards green transition to decarbonise economy and achieve climate goals at the earliest, the geopolitics around renewable energy and just transition has been a big challenge, especially for developing countries and LDCs.

  • CBDR and Climate Finance- Compelled by the limited financial resources, the developing nations and LDCs seek increased financial assistance in the form of Climate Finance to facilitate shift towards renewable energy and to reduce share of fossil fuels in the energy mix. However, the promise of raising $100 billion as climate finance by the developed countries has remained unfulfilled.
  • Technological Supremacy of West- The slower development of renewable energy sources (solar, wind, bio-energy, etc.) and higher costs of renewable energy are attributed to the lack of technology at the disposal of the Third World countries. The West having developed advanced technology for exploitation of green hydrogen, waste-to-energy and hybrid renewable energy, has been reluctant to share their technical know-how with the less developed nation, thus, establishing their supremacy and using it as a weapon of geopolitics.
  • Critical Minerals Race- From 2017 to 2022, green energy projects alone boosted demand for lithium by roughly 200 percent, cobalt by 70 percent and nickel by 40 percent.
  • Chinese monopoly- The uneven geographical distribution of critical minerals and near-monopoly of China in their production, refining and exports raise apprehensions regarding reliable, efficient supply chain of critical minerals.

Such dependencies create a high risk of supply disruptions and increase the Union’s vulnerability and security risks.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), China is home to about 35% of the world’s nickel, 58% of lithium, 65% of cobalt, and 87% of rare earth elements (REE) i.e. cerium, lanthanum, praseodymium etc.

  • The European Critical Raw Materials Act was voted on in the European Parliament during the September 11-14, 2023, seeks to diversify its supply chain for reliable supply of critical minerals. Most importantly, it aims to reduce its heavy dependence on China.

 

  • Deep sea mining race- In an attempt of diversify the supply chains and explore new regions for untapped critical minerals (in the seabed), countries such as Australia, India, USA have joined hands to counter the Chinese monopoly. The deep-sea mining for polymetallic nodules and other critical minerals by countries has surged, and in response, the reports of EEZ encroachments have also witnessed a rise.
  • Elitist nature of the Minerals Security Partnership- The MSP is elitist in its very idea of formation and induction of members. Countries like Indonesia, Vietnam, the Democratic Republic of Congo, which have abundant reserves of critical minerals are not part of this strategic grouping formed by US.

MSP is a strategic grouping of 13 member states including Australia, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom, US, the European Union, Italy and India.

CARBON BORDER ADJUSTMENT MECHANISM (CBAM)

The European Union (EU) has launched a carbon border tax on carbon intensive imports of products such as cement and fertilizer with the intent to prevent carbon leakage and incentivise green manufacturing.

  • Challenges for developing countries like India- India and other developing countries which are trade partners of the EU raise concerns regarding the discriminatory nature of this carbon levy, given the fact that fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas still contribute nearly 60% of India’s energy mix.
  • It is a challenge for India to make sudden transition towards renewable energy generation to drive the green manufacturing. Thus, the EU’s CBAM is touted as a geopolitical tactic used by the EU to further its interests at the stake of the interests of the less-competitive countries.

HOW IS INDIA ENSURING ENERGY SECURITY AND PROTECTING ITS INTERESTS THROUGH GEOPOLITICS?

As per the ‘2023 World Energy Outlook’ published by the OPEC, India’s primary energy demand will nearly more than double to 38.5 million barrels of oil equivalent per day (mboe/d) in 2045. India’s energy demand will also reach 10 per cent of global demand, up from 6.6 per cent currently.

The surging energy demands in the country and climate action have influenced the foreign policy of India in a bid to secure its national interests and ensure energy security:

  • Discounted Russian oil – Taking advantage of the discounts offered by Russia on crude oil in the aftermath of Russia-Ukraine war, India began purchasing Russian oil so as to diversify its trade partners in the field of energy resources. Russia has emerged as the largest oil importer of India, accounting for about 40% of India’s crude imports.
  • India and Russia recently discussed the possibility of exploring new transport corridors like the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and the Eastern Maritime Corridor (EMC) between Vladivostok and Chennai and both sides also agreed that Indian seafarers will be trained on Polar and Arctic waters at the Russian Maritime Training Institute in Vladivostok, which is equipped with simulators.
  • India invested to develop Chabahar port in Iran. This will help bypass Pakistan and have access to oil and mineral rich Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asian countries.
  • International Solar Alliance- The International Solar Alliance (ISA) founded by India in 2015, is an action-oriented, member-driven, collaborative platform for increased deployment of solar energy technologies as a means for bringing energy access, ensuring energy security, and driving energy transition in its member countries.
  • Global Biofuels Alliance (launched on the sidelines of G20 Summit in New Delhi 2023)- India as a founder member of GBA, has been focussing on scaling up the share of biofuels through sharing of technical know-how and encouraging investments in the R&D in waste-to-energy. The efforts by India to ramp up biofuels in energy basket of India aims to scale down the share of fossil fuels in energy mix.
  • Green Hydrogen Alliances- Recently, India and Saudi Arabia have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for the development of a green hydrogen supply chain which seeks to expand the cooperation among the two nations in the co-production of green hydrogen and the creation of secure, reliable, and resilient supply chains for materials used in green and clean hydrogen production and renewable energy.

CHALLENGES FOR INDIA

HIGH IMPORT-DEPENDENCE FOR CRUDE OIL

  • India’s oil import dependency was 84.4 per cent in 2020-21, 85 per cent in 2019-20, and 83.8 per cent in 2018-19.
  • The share of Persian Gulf countries in India’s crude imports has remained at around 60% over the last 15 years.
  • Also, Russia has emerged as the largest oil sourcing country for India in 2023, which has its own set of challenges in the wake of potential supply chain disruptions and growing bonhomie between Russia and China. The geodynamic equations and sanctions by the West on Russia are potential threats to energy security interests of India.

NUCLEAR SUPPLIERS GROUP

  • The nuclear energy generation in India is hindered by the limited domestic reserves of uranium (about 2% of the world’s total uranium reserves) and reliance on imports of nuclear fuel and nuclear technology.
  • India’s entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group is stonewalled by China which hurts the energy interests of India. China plays the Pakistan card and NPT entry as conditions for India to become a member of the NSG. India has been seeking NSG membership to gain access to foreign-sourced nuclear material and technology.

LACK OF DOMESTIC RESERVES OF CRITICAL MINERALS

  • India lacks reserves of critical minerals such as lithium and cobalt.
  • The complex supply chains, disruptions sue to political instability in Africa, Chinese dominance in production and processing of about 90% of critical minerals and heavy dependence of India for critical minerals are among the major challenges facing industrial development and green transition in the country.
  • Countries such as Democratic Republic of Congo lead in the reserves of cobalt (about 70% of total reserves).
  • Russia is a significant producer of nickel, palladium, titanium sponge, & scandium and Ukraine is a major producer of titanium; the Russia-Ukraine war has disrupted the supply chains.

HIGH COMPARATIVE COSTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

  • While renewable energy sources may appear to be cheaper, there are some hidden and indirect costs that make them far less financially attractive.
  • Given the intermittent nature of sources like solar and wind, energy storage solutions such as batteries, become crucial.
  • While the initial costs of renewable installations might seem competitive, the associated storage costs can be significant, especially when we factor in the lifespan and efficiency of current battery technologies. This is particularly relevant when comparing the continuous power generation capabilities of fossil fuel plants to the on-and-off nature of renewables.

2070 CARBON-NEUTRALITY AS CHALLENGE

  • There are numerous hurdles in India’s target for carbon-neutrality by 2070.
  • One, it would require about $10 trillion investment and given the constraints in climate finance mobilisation, it seems an arduous task.
  • Secondly, phasing out coal completely is difficult, given the requirements of industries and slow progress in addition of renewable energy. Also, the intermittent nature of renewables makes coal a viable option.
  • It also requires innovation and collaborations in the desired technologies to meet the target in the long run.

THE WAY FORWARD

India must secure its energy interests through the following measures:

  • Strategic Petroleum Reserves- All oil importing member countries of the International Energy Agency (IEA) have an obligation to hold emergency oil stocks equivalent to at least 90 days of net oil imports. India with the help of imported oil has been building its strategic petroleum reserves at Vishakhapatnam, Mangalore and Padur. India should also consider having strategic reserves of coal as well as natural gas.
  • Strategic autonomy- India must proactively exercise its strategic autonomy in maintenance of bilateral and multilateral relations to secure the national interests of the country in energy sector. Therefore, India must maintain its healthy relations with the Middle East, Russia as well as the USA for diversification of risks associated with suppliant chain management of energy resources and critical minerals supply.

The 3-year India-Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership and purchase of discounted Russian oil in this context are the right measures.

  • Critical Minerals Partnerships- India’s membership in the Minerals Security Partnership, state-owned joint venture KABIL’s agreement with Argentina to tap the critical minerals are the much-needed initiatives towards reliable and efficient critical minerals supply chain. Such opportunities must be leveraged well by the Indian government and investors.
  • Commercial mining of critical minerals- The rising demand of critical minerals for green energy transition and inadequate, slow progress in exploration and production of potential domestic reserves of critical minerals have driven India’s amendments in the Minerals and Mines (Development and Regulation) Act 1957, to boost commercial mining of select critical minerals in the country. Private participation in mining of critical minerals with increased investments in the R&D is imperative.
  • Deep Ocean exploration- India must ensure robust implementation of the crucial policies such as Deep Ocean Mission, O-SMART and Samudrayaan Mission (Matsya 6000) to explore, tap and exploit the polymetallic nodules and other energy resources to fulfil the burgeoning energy demands of the country.
  • Geospatial Energy Mapping- The Geospatial Energy Map of India launched by IRSO and Niti Aayog (2021) attempts to identify and locate all primary and secondary sources of energy and their transportation/transmission networks to provide a comprehensive view of energy production and distribution in a country. It should be used effectively by the private sector and other stakeholders in research and development of energy resources.

THE CONCLUSION- Energy and geopolitics are intertwined. With new discoveries of energy resources (shale gas in the USA, lithium reserves in India, etc.) and innovations in associated technologies, the energy sector dominates in the negotiations and agreements between the nations and will continue to have its influence on foreign policy of the nations in future as well. India must carefully weigh its options and make the best out of its deals, agreements at the bilateral, regional, or multilateral forums.

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

Q. Climate change is changing the energy geopolitics globally, with significant implications for India. Comment.

Q. The melting of the Arctic has been shaping the energy dynamics of the world. Discuss in the context of importance of Arctic region for India.

Q. The Russia-Ukraine war has dramatically transformed the energy dynamics of the world. In this context, comment on India’s approach to fulfil its national interest.




TOPIC- INDIA AGEING REPORT 2023 BY THE UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND

THE CONTEXT: The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), both globally and in India, focuses on population ageing as part of its strategic plan for emerging population concerns. The recently released UN report highlights the rapid growth of the elderly population in India since 2010, while the number of individuals below 15 has declined. This article comprehensively analyses the report and other related issues of the elderly from the UPSC perspective.

ABOUT THE REPORT

The report released in September 2023, used data from the 2011 Census, the 2017-18 Longitudinal Ageing Survey in India (LASI) conducted by the Health Ministry, population projections of the Government of India and the World Population Projection 2022 report, among other sources. Though the pace of ageing in India is moderate, with the proportion of the aged increasing to 20 percent by 2050, it highlights various key indicators of demographic variations among aging population in India and suggest measures to provide a healthy and dignified life to elderly.

KEY HIGHLIGHTS OF THE REPORT

PROJECTION OF ELDERLY POPULATION

  • The decadal growth rate of the elderly population of India currently estimated to be at 41%.
  • With this rate, the percentage of elderly population in the country projected to double to over 20% of total population by 2050.
  • By 2046, it is likely that elderly population will have surpassed the population of children (aged 0 to 15 years) in the country.
  • The report also projected that the population of people aged 80+ years will grow at a rate of around 279% between 2022 and 2050 with a predominance of widowed and highly dependent very old women.

VULNERABILITIES OF ELDERS

  • More than 40% of the elderly in India are in the poorest wealth quintile, with about 18.7% of them living without an income.
  • Such levels of poverty may affect their quality of life and healthcare utilisation.

HIGHER LIFE EXPECTANCY OF WOMEN

  • Women, on average, had higher life expectancy at the age of 60 and at the 80, when compared to men, which varies across States and Union Territories.
  • The sex ratio (females per 1,000 males) among the elderly has been climbing steadily since 1991, with the ratio in the general population stagnating.

GENDERED POVERTY

  • Poverty is inherently gendered in old age when older women are more likely to be widowed, living alone, with no income and with fewer assets of their own, and fully dependent on family for support.
  • Major challenges facing India’s ageing population are the feminisation and ruralisation.

REGIONAL VARIATIONS

  • Most States in the southern region and select northern States such as Himachal Pradesh and Punjab reported a higher share of the elderly population than the national average in 2021, a gap that is expected to widen by 2036.

OLD AGE DEPENDENCY

  • In the southern region, the old-age dependency ratio (elderly people per 100 people between 15 and 59 years) was higher than the national average at around 20 as is true of western India at 17.
  • Overall, Union Territories (13) and the north-eastern region (13) reflected lower old age dependency ratios.

LOW AWARENESS LEVEL

  • A little more than half of the elderly (55%) are aware of the old-age pension scheme (IGNOAPS); 44% about the widow pension scheme (IGNWPS); and 12% about the Annapurna Scheme.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REPORT

By 2050, the share of older persons in India will double to 20.8 percent, with the absolute number reaching 347 million. This rise in the ageing population will have significant implications for health, economy, and society in India. The elderly population in India is expanding rapidly and may surpass the children’s population by mid-century. This makes it imperative for the government to draw broad policy guidelines for better care to the elderly.

INTERNATIONAL POLICY FRAMEWORKS ON AGEING

WORLD ASSEMBLY ON AGEING

  • The First World Assembly on Ageing was held in 1982, which established the International Plan of Action on Ageing. This plan emphasized the rights of older persons, including independence, participation in society, access to care, dignity, and self-fulfilment.
  • The Second World Assembly on Ageing took place in Madrid in 2002. This assembly aimed to address the global ageing agenda and its impact on development. The main outcome documents from this assembly were the Political Declaration and the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA), 2002.
  • The UN Resolution (75/131) expressed concern about the world not being sufficiently prepared to respond to the rights and needs of older people. It emphasized the need for a whole-of-society approach to address the challenges of ageing.

UNITED NATIONS DECADE OF HEALTHY AGEING

  • The World Health Organization (WHO) initiated the Decade of Healthy Ageing (2020-2030), focusing on four areas: age-friendly environments, combating ageism, enhancing functional ability, and improving long-term care systems. The goal is to ensure older people can live a life commensurate with their basic rights, fundamental freedoms, and human dignity.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE FOR THE CARE OF ELDERLY

The care of the elderly is imperative for governments because they represent a significant portion of the population, having contributed to the societal, cultural, and economic foundations of the nation in their prime years. As they age, they face unique vulnerabilities, from health challenges to economic insecurities.

Without state intervention, they might lack access to essential services, leading to increased socio-economic disparities.

In recent years, the Indian government has initiated several measures to enhance the welfare and well-being of the elderly.

  • Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana (RVY): Launched in 2017, this program provides free physical aids and assisted living devices for senior citizens belonging to the Below Poverty Line (BPL) category.
  • Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana (PMVVY): Started in 2017, this is a pension scheme tailored for senior citizens, offering a guaranteed rate of return over its tenure.
  • Senior Citizens’ Welfare Fund: Established in 2015, this fund channels unclaimed amounts from various financial schemes for the welfare of senior citizens and their promotion of healthcare and social security.
  • Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (Formerly National Action Plan for Senior Citizens (NAPSrC): provides a comprehensive action plan for services like health, housing, and welfare to senior citizens, including protection against abuse.
  • Livelihood and Skilling Initiatives for Senior Citizens – Senior Able Citizens for Re-Employment in Dignity (SACRED); Action Groups Aimed at Social Reconstruction (AGRASR Groups): Elderly Self-Help groups etc. are other initiatives by the government to aid the elderly in leading a dignified life.

Such initiatives reflect the government’s holistic approach to elderly care, encompassing economic well-being, health, and social security.

CORPORATE SECTOR AND THE WELFARE OF SENIOR CITIZENS

The government has implemented several programs and schemes for senior citizens’ welfare. However, given the increasing numbers of the elderly, the private sector can also play a significant role in addressing their vulnerabilities. Under Schedule VII of the Companies Act, 2013, corporate entities are mandated to spend 2% of their net profits averaged over three preceding financial years for social development.

Ageing issues have been added as a focus area for corporate social responsibility (CSR) spending, which includes initiatives like vocational skills development, livelihood enhancement projects, setting up old age homes, day care centers, and benefits for armed forces veterans and war widows.

HelpAge India, one of the nation’s leading NGOs working for the elderly, partnered with HDFC Ltd. Through this partnership, HDFC funded Mobile Medical Units (MMUs) which provide primary healthcare services to destitute elders in remote areas.

Tata Steel Rural Development Society (TSRDS): This CSR arm of Tata Steel has been active in setting up old age homes in various areas, providing senior citizens with shelter, food, medical care, and recreational activities.

Apollo Hospitals’ “Project Arogya”: Apollo Hospitals, in association with NGOs, has set up clinics that offer geriatric care, covering consultations, diagnostics, and health checks at subsidized rates for the elderly.

These case studies exemplify how the corporate sector, in collaboration with NGOs and on their own, are creating tailor-made solutions for the burgeoning elderly demographic in India, ranging from healthcare to technology solutions.

COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATIONS AND ELDERLY CARE

Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) play a pivotal role in the welfare of the elderly in India. They act as a bridge between the grassroots level and larger NGOs or governmental organizations. Few notable CBOs and their contributions to the welfare of the elderly in India:

  • Agewell Foundation: Founded in 1999, this network of over 1500 NGOs and 6500 volunteers works at the grassroots level across India to address issues faced by the elderly. They focus on health, legal literacy, economic security, and human rights for senior citizens.
  • Dignity Foundation: Operating primarily in urban settings, this organization provides a platform for senior citizens to share their concerns. They offer programs ranging from helplines, health workshops, and even a magazine dedicated to the elderly.
  • Harmony for Silvers Foundation: Founded by Tina Ambani, this foundation publishes “Harmony”, a magazine dedicated to issues related to senior citizens. They also organize initiatives and programs tailored for the elderly.
  • Nightingales Medical Trust: Based in Bangalore, this trust focuses on health and medical services for the elderly. They run memory clinics for dementia and Alzheimer’s patients and offer physiotherapy, geriatric care, and other healthcare services.
  • Positive Ageing Foundation: This Delhi-based organization focuses on comprehensive care for the elderly, dealing with health, finance, legal issues, and emotional well-being.
  • The Anugraha Foundation: Based in Pune, they focus on holistic development and care of the elderly, especially those suffering from Alzheimer’s and related disorders.

These CBOs, through their dedicated services and programs, play an integral role in enhancing the quality of life for the elderly, advocating for their rights, and ensuring they remain integrated and valued members of society.

REACH AND UTILIZATION OF SOCIAL SECURITY SCHEMES AND HEALTHCARE BY OLDER PERSONS

  • Knowledge of Social Security Schemes and Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act (MWPSC), 2007: Only 55% of the elderly are aware of the old-age pension scheme (IGNOAPS), 44% about the widow pension scheme (IGNWPS), and 12% about the Annapurna Scheme. The report presents the percentage of elderly individuals aware of these schemes based on various background characteristics.

  • Utilization of Social Security Schemes: Despite awareness, there are gaps in the actual utilization of these schemes. For instance, even among those aware of the schemes, actual utilization is low. This gap could be due to supply system factors, demand system factors, or a combination of both.
  • Access to Healthcare Facilities: Healthcare utilization among the elderly varies between in-patient and out-patient care. About 8% of the elderly accessed in-patient care, while 59% accessed out-patient care in the 12 months preceding the survey.

          For in-patient care, 37.7% accessed public facilities and 57% accessed private facilities. For out-patient care, 22.9% accessed public facilities, and 63.3% accessed private facilities.

  • Health Insurance Coverage: The coverage of health insurance schemes is highest in the age group of 60–69 years (20.4%). Elderly men (19.7%) had a greater share of coverage than elderly women (16.9%). There wasn’t much variance between urban and rural areas regarding health insurance scheme coverage.

The findings three primary factors determining the utilization of various social security schemes for the needy elderly: knowledge/awareness, reach/access, and actual use, according to the report suggest that while awareness is low, there’s also a gap between awareness and use. This makes it imperative for future policies to address the gap by taking required actions to increase awareness among target beneficiaries.

COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND THE ELDERLY

Senior citizens were particularly vulnerable during the pandemic due to their age, health co-morbidities, and economic vulnerabilities. The lengthy lockdowns affected their access to healthcare, ongoing medical treatments, and availability of medicines. Many faced increased fear and anxiety due to isolation, lack of physical activity, and forced loneliness. Many elderly households were pushed below the poverty line during the pandemic, impacting both their lives and livelihoods.

Poverty, lack of social security in old age, poor public health facilities, illiteracy and digital ignorance created additional challenges. Service delivery to those living independently or in institutions such as old age homes was also proving to be difficult, and here, efforts of nongovernmental organization (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) were invaluable.

While governments are able to plan and implement such programmes, NGOs and CBOs are able to supplement and complement government efforts by reaching the grassroots level, especially in remote areas.

CASE STUDY: ROLE OF HELPAGE INDIA

During the first wave of the pandemic, HelpAge India’s helpline staff, along with volunteers (including student volunteers), called members of senior citizens’ associations to spread awareness about the government’s guidelines. HelpAge India’s pandemic response focused on several areas:

  • Food and Nutrition: In collaboration with corporate partners, HelpAge India distributed 150,000 meals to old age homes, day care centers, and urban destitute elderly. This included 70,000 meals in Delhi/NCR and 24,000 in Telangana. The meals and hygiene kits were initially distributed in urban slums, semi-rural areas, and old age homes.
  • Communication: The organization emphasized spreading awareness about COVID-19 protocols.
  • Medical Health Units (MHUs): During the lockdowns, MHUs initiated public health awareness campaigns to educate the elderly about the pandemic.
  • Vaccination Drive: HelpAge India teams actively participated in the government’s vaccination drive, conducting outreach programs to maximize the number of older persons getting vaccinated. They also provided communication material to address vaccine hesitancy and inform about post-vaccination symptoms.
  • Livelihoods: To support the decreased income of Elder Self-Help Groups (ESHGs) during the pandemic, a corporate-supported program was initiated that provided ₹5,000–₹5,500 as a direct benefit transfer.

Support and Collaboration: HelpAge India’s decentralized procurement procedure helped reduce response time. They partnered with mobile health units (MHUs) and local partners (NGOs/CBOs and senior citizens associations) to ensure the last mile distribution and delivery of services. Elder self-help groups (ESHGs) were formed in partnership with other voluntary organizations and community members.

Helpline Services: During the second wave, HelpAge India’s helpline provided guidance on legal aspects, counselling, moral support, and facilitated direct interventions. In Delhi, the helpline assisted 60% of older persons in securing hospital beds and followed up with them for treatment. The helpline team also coordinated with local police and medical units for blood plasma, oxygen, and assisted the local administration in other areas.

The pandemic highlighted the increased vulnerability of older individuals, especially those with non-communicable diseases. The interruption in the primary healthcare system particularly affected the elderly. The pandemic underscored the need for better mental health and counselling services, along with curative care.

The Way Forward according to UNFPA:

1. Role of the Government:

  • Financial and technical support: For any pan-India development initiative (including elder care), the government need to come up with a clear and cogent policy-based technical, financial and administrative support backed by effective technology-led communication strategy.
  • Enhancing collaboration among stakeholders: the government needs to focus on systematic coordination, convergence and collaboration across key stakeholders to avoid duplication of effort, operations at cross-purposes and bureaucratic hold-ups.

Departments within the government need to converge their efforts to ensure that their respective programmes are elderly friendly and delivered in a holistic fashion. For example, programmes of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare should prioritize the training of service providers and supervisors on geriatric care.

  • The government, private sector and relevant institutions can work together to encourage research and knowledge building on the implications of prevailing and emerging social, political, economic, technological, market and business, financial, health and institutional processes and safety nets on ageing including services and products for the elderly.
  • District Development Officers in close collaboration with PRIs must develop better convergence of development initiatives in villages aimed at improving lives and living standards of elderly taking a comprehensive view rather than individual projects.

2. Others:

  • Apart from government sources, there is significant scope for mobilizing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds for this purpose as elder care.
  • Community Based Organisations (CBOs) can also be further promoted to enable regular interface between project beneficiaries and managers at central and state levels so that inputs from the community can enrich project design, implementation and create opportunities for mid-course correction for better outcomes and improved outreach.
  • Active PRI involvement is essential for community transformation aimed at building a supportive environment for senior citizens. The innovative interventions related to the elderly by PRIs such as Kudumbashree, Asraya and Palliative Care in Kerala, which can be replicated in other states as well.
  • Indian culture stands on the concept of filial piety, where caring for the elderly is considered a duty of the younger generation. Intergenerational solidarity and the relationship between generations need to be nurtured for ensuring the wellbeing of the elderly.

THE CONCLUSION: The impending rise in the old age population in India in the coming decades will bring a demographic shift which can have significant implications for the health sector, economy, and society. The UNFPA Report 2023 serves as a reference document for stakeholders to develop programs and initiatives that cater to the needs of the elderly. Caring for the elderly not only upholds their rights to a dignified life but also promotes societal values of respect, gratitude, and inter-generational cohesion.  Furthermore, their wisdom, experiences, and skills are invaluable assets, which can be harnessed for the greater societal good.

Mains Practice Questions:

Q.1 The UNFPA Report 2023 highlights the vulnerabilities faced by the elderly in India. In this context discuss the government initiatives for the aging population in India.

Q.2 Discuss the reasons for the ‘feminisation’ and ‘ruralisation’ of older population in India.




TOPIC: PROBLEMS OF GDP CALCULATION IN INDIA

THE CONTEXT: India clocked in year-on year GDP growth as of this financial year’s April-June quarter (Q1), 2023 at 7.8%, according to the National Statistical Office (NSO), but there is allegation that the government is favoring the higher estimate of GDP by using a statistical tool called ‘discrepancy’. Following article explain how GDP is calculated in India and associated issues from UPSC CSE PERSPECTIVE.

CURRENT ISSUE IN DEBATE

  • After the release of National Statistical Office (NSO) data it created controversy over GDP data. Here, Opposition alleged that the Q1 GDP data was overstating the GDP by a full percentage point.
  • Another criticism came from some economists who pointed to the two main ways in which India calculates its GDP and argued that they did not match up and alleged that government is favouring the higher estimate of GDP by using a statistical tool called “discrepancy”.
  • As consumers, most Indians might find a real GDP growth rate of 7.8% an obvious That’s because the retail inflation rate in these three months was 4.7%, 4.3% and 4.9%, respectively.
  • If one was to “deflate” nominal GDP using consumer price inflation, the real GDP would fall to less than 4%.
  • But then if one goes by wholesale inflation, the real GDP will actually be much higher than 8%. That’s because wholesale inflation was negative in all the three months -0.8%, -3.6%, and -4.2%, respectively.
  • The fact is that India’s inflation indices need to be updated. In particular, experts have been repeatedly arguing that the wholesale price index must be discarded altogether in favour of a new Producer Price Index.
  • Presently WPI is collected and processed by the Department of Commerce and Industry and largely follows the IIP (Index of Industrial Production) frame, which itself is subject to criticism.
  • Moreover, WPI does not provide information on rural and urban as well as the state level estimates, which are all relevant for public policy.
  • Again, one would expect that the discrepancy level (as a percentage of the total GDP) would be higher in quarterly GDP estimates and lower in annual GDP estimates because with time, more reliable data is available and estimates can be expected to come close to each other.
  • However, the credibility of India’s GDP estimates depends on the quality of underlying data be it the WPI inflation or consumer expenditure or Index of Industrial Production (IIP). Hence, policymakers need to address the quality of Indian macroeconomic data to ensure credibility of India’s GDP estimates.

GDP AND ITS CALCULATION METHOD

  • The GDP is the most basic way to assess the performance and size of any economy both from one year to another as well as across different countries. Technically GDP is defined as the total market value of all final goods and services in an economy.
  • Real GDP versus Nominal GDP: The overall GDP that one observes by adding up the market value is called the nominal GDP. But to arrive at the real GDP, statisticians remove the effect of price inflation from nominal GDP. This is done by using what is called a GDP deflator or price deflator.

HOW IS GDP CALCULATED?

  • The current GDP estimates place India as the fifth largest economy in the world. However, it is estimated that India is on the path to becoming the third-largest economy around 2027.
  • The primary responsibility for the measurement of GDP is with the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
  • The country’s GDP is presently computed with the base year of 2011-12.

Three ways to calculate GDP. These methods are:

1. The Output Method (all value added by each producer)

2. The Income Method (all income generated)

3. The Expenditure Method (all spending)

Output Method

The Output Method measures GDP as the value of

  • Output (what is produced)
  • minus the value of goods and services used up in producing these outputs (the inputs or Intermediate Consumption)
  • plus, all Taxes on Products like VAT
  • minus all Subsidies on Products like renewable energy subsidies

Income Method

The income method measures GDP by adding together:

  • The Gross Profit of companies and the Self-Employed
  • plus the wages of employees (Compensation of Employees)
  • plus all Taxes on Products like VAT
  • minus all (like renewable energy subsidies)

Expenditure Method

In the expenditure approach, as the name implies, we measure how much is spent on goods and services. It is important that spending is only counted once. We estimate:

  • Consumer spending by individuals (Personal Consumption Expenditure)
  • plus Net Expenditure by Central and Local Government
  • plus all Capital Spending (such as buildings and machines)
  • plus Net Exports

HOW IS GDP CALCULATED IN INDIA?

  • To assess India’s productivity, the GDP is calculated using the factor cost method across eight industries and the expenditure method is used to analyse how different areas of the economy are performing.
  • There are four parts to the expenditure method: i) Private Consumption ii) Gross Investment iii) Government Spending iv) Net Exports
  • Private consumption includes things like buying a car or eating out where only final consumption is considered.
  • Gross investment is the total expenditure made for buying capital goods over a time period, without accounting for depreciation.
  • Government purchases includes salary to employees, direct benefit transfer (DBT) payments, pensions, subsidies and other ways that the government spends its money for the public good.
  • While calculating Net exports, the value of imports needs to be subtracted from the value of exports. Imports are already accounted for within the first part of the expenditure method, private consumption.

What is the factor cost method of calculating GDP?

The GVA figure of India’s economy is arrived at by calculating the net change in value for each sector over a designated time period.

The eight industry sectors that India considers are:

  • Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
  • Mining and quarrying
  • Manufacturing
  • Electricity, gas and water supply
  • Construction
  • Trade, hotels, transport, and communication
  • Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services
  • Community, social and personal services

The GDP number from the two methods may not be an exact match but the level of discrepancy should be minimal.

HOW GDP CALCULATION METHODOLOGY CHANGED IN INDIA AFTER 2015?

In 2015 Central Statistics Office (CSO) introduced few changes in the GDP calculation. They are mentioned below:

  • Change of base year from 2004-2005 to 2011-2012: The change was done on recommendation of National Statistical Commission which had advised to revise the base year of all economic indices every five years.
  • Replacing Factor Cost with Market Prices: The change was made to measure the GDP at basic prices i.e by the GVA method instead at factor cost. It includes not only the cost of production but also product subsidies and taxes. It was recommended by the United Nations System of National Accounts in 2008 which makes India’s GDP growth numbers comparable with that of developed nations in future.
  • Broadening of data pool: The new data is pooled from the annual accounts of companies filed with the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA21) which includes more than 5 lakh companies instead of earlier data from Annual Survey of Industries (ASI). It also takes into account the population census (2011), agriculture census (2010-11) and livestock census (2012). Also, there is improvement in coverage of financial corporations and in coverage of local bodies and autonomous institutions.
  • Changes in calculation of agricultural income: Earlier data only included value added in farm produce, but the new data includes value addition in Livestock as well.
  • Changes in calculation of labour income: In the changed method, Effective Labour Input (ELI) method is used which distinguishes workers on productivity by assigning weights to different categories of workers rather than earlier Labour Input (LI) method which used to had same parameter for each worker making them all equal.

WHY IS GDP USED BY MOST COUNTRIES AS A MEASURE OF NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING?

GDP AS A MEASURE OF ECONOMIC WELL-BEING

  • GDP is important because it gives information about the size of the economy and how an economy is performing.
  • GDP serves as a gauge of our economy’s overall size and health.
  • In broad terms, an increase in real GDP is interpreted as a sign that the economy is doing well.
  • When compared with prior periods, GDP tells us whether the economy is expanding by producing more goods and services or contracting due to less output.
  • Economists study GDP and related statistics to help inform their research.

INFORMED POLICY DECISIONS

  • It provides valuable insights into the economy’s health and helps policymakers make informed fiscal and monetary policy decisions.
  • Policymakers look to GDP when contemplating decisions on interest rates, tax and trade policies. Policymakers can use GDP data to guide fiscal and monetary policy decisions.
  • State and local governments rely on GDP and similar statistics to help shape policy or decide how much public spending is affordable.
  • For example, if GDP falls, policymakers may need to introduce policies to stimulate growth. Policymakers and investors can identify economic trends and patterns by comparing GDP data from one period to another.

STANDARD OF LIVING

  • GDP is an important indicator of living standards, directly correlating with per capita income and household consumption.
  • It measures how much output each person in the country contributes to the economy on average.
  • GDP per capita measures a country’s economic output per person. It represents the total monetary value of goods and services generated within a country’s borders over a given period, divided by its total population.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON

  • GDP data aids in comparing the economic performance of different countries and used as a benchmark for international comparisons and can influence decisions about investment and trade.
  • By comparing GDP data across countries, policymakers and investors can identify economic strengths and weaknesses and make informed decisions.
  • Most of the international institutions also uses GDP data for countries. For example, The World Bank and IMF provide annual GDP data for most countries.
  • National statistical agencies provide official GDP data for their respective countries and may have more detailed information on the components of GDP.

EVALUATE INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES

  • Investors can use GDP data to evaluate the potential for investment opportunities in different sectors of the economy.
  • For example, a high GDP growth rate in a particular sector may suggest investment potential.

ISSUES IN GDP ESTIMATION

OUTDATED BASE YEAR

  • The country’s GDP is presently computed with the base year of 2011-12 which is now more than 10 years old.
  • GDP estimates based on an outdated base year would not adequately capture new activities being undertaken in the economy.

VARIATION IN GDP FIGURES DUE TO DISTINCT METHOD OF CALCULATION

  • As India’s GDP is calculated using three methods.
  • Each method produced distinct result led to variation in data due to their assessment method which create confusion.

DON’T TAKE INTO ACCOUNT SURVEYS

  • Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has not come out with the results of various surveys like the consumer expenditure survey and the annual survey on unincorporated enterprises which are crucial for the base revision exercise.

IMPACT ON PUBLIC PERCEPTION

  • Experts express concern that presenting an overly positive image of economic growth through GDP figures can mask the economic struggles and challenges faced by a significant portion of the population.
  • This can impact public perception and policy decisions.

CANT ASSESS INCOME INEQUALITY

  • GDP does not account for income distribution in any way i.e distribution of income amongst and within households or different economic classes in given societies is not captured by GDP data.
  • Therefore, much of the work done by people today remains under-measured or largely unaccounted for.
  • For most studies measuring and accounting for trends in income inequality, survey methods based on consumer spending and consumption behaviour are used and relied upon.

CANNOT CAPTURE WELL BEING AND GREEN GROWTH

  • However, GDP has been the main way in which success has been measured but it is designed to measure only production capacity and economic growth.
  • GDP was not designed to assess welfare or the well being of citizens. It does not capture green growth and environmental sustainability.
  • Therefore, GDP is a limited measure of a country’s development success, as it ignores other important factors.

NO NEW FRESH SURVEYS

  • New indicators are required based on fresh surveys. But no new survey of the unorganised sector has been conducted since 2015. Even the census has not been conducted in 2021.
  • So the method used is seriously flawed. Finally, projecting the past annual numbers and dividing by four to get the quarterly figure is also seriously flawed when there is a shock to the economy at some point during the year.

DISCREPANCIES IN GDP CALCULATION

  • An analysis of the GDP expenditure components reveals a concerning trend that there is an unexplained gap in the GDP calculation.
  • It raises questions about the accuracy of the reported economic data.

DISREPANCY TOOL AND ITS CRITICISM

  • Discrepancy is the difference between the two GDP estimates using expenditure and income method by GoI.
  • India’s GDP is calculated mainly with two different methods: income method and expenditure method. However, the GDP figures from these two approaches may not be an exact match.
  • There’s a subhead in the GDP data as ‘discrepancies’. It is used to explain any difference between the GDP calculated through the income and expenditure methods.
  • These are not a category of GDP expenditure. These are a sum of errors in various expenditure categories.
  • These do not spur growth of the economy as the other expenditures signify. Usually, discrepancies are supposed to be less than 1%. But, in recent years, in Indian data, these have been large.
  • This presents a positive image of economic growth on the paper while underlying issues such as rising inequalities, job scarcity, and a decline in manufacturing.
  • This led to an unexplained gap in the GDP calculation, which raises questions about the accuracy of the reported economic data.
  • One of the other issue of difference is double counting issue in calculation of GDP. This is an error caused due to adding the value of a commodity twice once before adding value.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Revision of base year: There is need to revision of base year at least 2016-17 for which a complete assessment of various data sources presently used for compilation and an examination of the feasibility of using new sources of data is required. It is expected that revision of the base year would result in capturing of a lot of new activities being undertaken in recent years, due to both efforts of the present government and through private initiatives.
  • Utilise surveys data: MoSPI must gear itself up to develop systems to be able to utilise surveys like the consumer expenditure survey and the annual survey on unincorporated enterprises. Also, the exercise to examine other available databases, especially the newly created databases from GST and digital payments, should commence immediately.
  • Continuous cooperation: It requires continuous cooperation and action on the part of all the actors including the private sector, governments, policymakers and bureaucracy and the citizens through their active participation in the process of GDP calculation.
  • Improvement in procedure: There are also requirements for improvements in the procedure for the compilation of GDP in the country. During the last base revision, an effort was made to introduce Supply Use Tables which are critical for the validation of national accounts statistics. Then it could not succeed, however with recent expertise it can be introduced.
  • Scrutiny without bias: Intersectional mechanisms to validate growth figures require focus and empirical scrutiny that is independent from political and partisan bias. Such assessments with historical context and time-series validations may help the government to stop its obsessions with justifying short-term trends and focus on larger goals.
  • New methodology: India’s GDP numbers need to be recalculated with a change in methodology. The argument that the discrepancies get evened out is not a strong one. To solve the discrepancies there is need of newer techniques to get accurate growth data.

THE CONCLUSION: Using GDP for an idea to economic development isn’t transcendental in nature nor it is an outcome of some perfectly imaginative goal but qualifies as a basic requirement for every social policy to achieve through outcomes. Therefore, policymakers need to address the concerns of India’s GDP estimates and should take suitable measures to incorporate other factors like sustainability to ensure its accuracy and credibility.

QUESTIONS

Q.1 Comment on the effectiveness of GDP as a measure of welfare of the people.

Q.2 Examine the methodology of GDP calculation in India how GDP is calculated in India. Why is it being used by countries as a measure of national income accounting despite its flaws? Suggest measures to ensure its credibility.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

GREEN GDP

  • The concept of ‘Green GDP’ was coined in the late 1980s with aspiration to modify GDP to better reflect the impacts of economic activities on the environment. Green GDP takes into account the costs of environmental degradation and climate events.
  • The “Green GDP” is derived from Net Domestic Product (NDP), – which is obtained by subtracting the depreciation of produced assets such as machines and buildings from GDP – by deducting the cost of depletion of natural resources and degradation of ecosystems.
  • Green GDP = GDP – (Carbon dioxide damage + particulate emission damage) – (Opportunity cost of energy depletion + mineral depletion + net forest depletion) + Expenditure on environmental protection.
  • It provides a practical and flexible approach for achieving concrete, measurable progress across its economic and environmental pillars, while taking full account of the social consequences of greening the growth dynamic of economies.
  • The focus of Green GDP is ensuring that natural assets can deliver their full economic potential on a sustainable basis.
  Definition Formula
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) GDP indicates the total value of all final goods and services manufactured within a country’s borders over time GDP = C + I + G + NX (Expenditure Approach) OR

GDP = Monetary value of all products and services manufactured – Intermediate consumption (Production Approach).

 

Gross National Product (GNP) GNP refers to the value of all goods and services that a country’s residents produce, regardless of location, over a given period. GNP = GDP + net income from abroad (income earned by residents of a country from foreign sources – income earned by foreigners in a country).
Gross National Income (GNI) GNI measures a country’s residents’ total income, regardless of location, over a given period GNI = GDP + net income from abroad (similar to GNP) – indirect taxes + subsidies.
Net National Product (NNP) NNP is the monetary value of finished goods and services produced by a country’s citizens, overseas and domestically, in a given period. ​NNP=Gross National Product−Depreciation
Net Domestic Product (NDP) NDP is an annual measure of the economic output of a nation that is adjusted to account for depreciation. NDP=GDP−Depreciation



TOPIC- THE ISSUE OF SUICIDES IN INDIA

THE CONTEXT: Globally, close to 800 000 people die by suicide every year; that’s one person every 40 seconds. While the link between suicide and mental disorders (in particular, depression and alcohol use disorders) is well established, many suicides happen impulsively in moments of crisis. Suicide is an emerging and serious public health issue in India. We have witnessed spate of suicides reported among school students preparing for competitive exams in Rajasthan’s Kota. This article explains the causes and impacts of suicides in India and strategies to address them from the UPSC perspective.

INDIA’S STAGGERING CONTRIBUTION TO THE CRISIS

  • In India, the situation is even more alarming. Data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reveals that in a recent year, India recorded an average of 381 suicides daily, contributing to 17.8% of global suicides. This positions India as having one of the highest suicide rates in the south-eastern Asian region.
  • The number of deaths due to suicides in India reached an all-time high in 2021, according to the latest data from the National Crime Records Bureau.
  • In 2021, the rate of suicide – the number of death due to suicides per one lakh population – stood at 12. This is the highest rate of deaths from suicides since 1967, the earliest year for which data is available.
  • The highest numbers of suicides were reported in Maharashtra where 22,207 persons killed themselves in 2021. This was followed by Tamil Nadu at 18,925 suicide cases, Madhya Pradesh at 14,965, West Bengal at 13,500 and Karnataka at 13,056.
  • Beyond mere numbers, the patterns within these statistics – such as the predominance of youth, the rural-urban divide, and gender-specific trends – highlight the multi-dimensional challenges India faces. The intersection of socio-economic pressures, cultural nuances, and mental health stigma further exacerbates the crisis.
  • National Data: India’s national average, as per the latest NCRB report, stands at about 11 suicides per 100,000 people. This figure is higher than the global average, emphasizing the gravity of the situation.
  • State-wise Data: Disparities exist between states. For instance, southern states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala report higher suicide rates than the national average, while northern states like Punjab and Haryana report rates below the average. States with reported agrarian distress, like Maharashtra, show an uptick in farmer suicides.
  • The share of students among India’s overall suicide victims has also increased. It stood at 8% of the total in 2021, having grown by 2.3 percentage points since 2011.

As we delve deeper, we’ll analyze the intricacies of India’s suicide rates, hoping to shed light on the systemic and societal changes needed to mitigate this pressing concern.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

EVOLUTION OF SOCIETAL VIEWS ON SUICIDE IN INDIA:

India’s views on suicide have undergone significant changes over millennia, mirroring its socio-cultural evolution.

Historically, during the Vedic period, there were instances where ‘self-sacrifice’ was not only accepted but celebrated under specific circumstances, like the practice of “Sati” where some widows were expected (or forced) to self-immolate on their husband’s funeral pyre. While the act itself was tragic, it was symbolically viewed as a profound display of loyalty and honor.

In later periods, especially during the time of the Dharmashastras, suicide began to be seen in a more negative light. Traditional texts often prescribed penalties in the afterlife for those who took their own lives, reinforcing the notion that suicide was a grave sin.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL, RELIGIOUS, AND TRADITIONAL BELIEFS:

  • Hinduism: The ancient Hindu scriptures, the Vedas and the Upanishads, do not specifically discuss suicide, but later scriptures like the Puranas detail consequences in the afterlife for those who end their own lives. The Bhagavad Gita, while not directly referencing suicide, emphasizes the sanctity of life and the importance of performing one’s duty (dharma).
  • Buddhism: Buddhism traditionally views life as a cycle of birth and rebirth, with suffering (dukkha) central to human existence. Taking one’s own life interrupts this cycle and is thus considered undesirable. Suicide, by creating more suffering, is seen as contradictory to the Buddhist path.
  • Islam: With a significant Muslim population, India’s Islamic community views suicide as haram (forbidden). The Quran explicitly states that one should not kill oneself.
  • Jainism: Jainism introduces a nuanced perspective with the practice of ‘Sallekhana’, where an individual voluntarily gives up food and water to embrace death. This is not considered suicide but rather a religious act of purifying the soul.
  • Christianity: India’s Christian community views suicide through the lens of the Bible, which emphasizes the sanctity of life. While suicide is not explicitly mentioned, it’s generally perceived as a grave act against God’s gift of life.

Suicides, especially those connected with religious or cultural practices in India, have been a significant concern.

Santhara: A practice in the Jain community where an individual, typically at a very old age, chooses to embrace voluntary death by fasting. This came under scrutiny when the Rajasthan High Court in 2015 declared the practice as illegal, equating it to suicide. However, the Supreme Court, in a subsequent ruling, suspended the High Court’s decision.

The Supreme Court has emphasized the importance of the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution. While historically, attempting suicide was a punishable offense under Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code, the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017, decriminalized it, recognizing that persons attempting suicide are in need of care and support.

Émile Durkheim

Émile Durkheim, a pioneering sociologist, identified four distinct categories of suicide in his seminal work, “Suicide” (1897): egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic. Let’s discuss these categories within the Indian context:

  • Egoistic Suicide: This results from an individual’s detachment from society. When societal bonds weaken, individuals face existential crises leading to such suicides. In India, urbanization and the erosion of traditional joint family systems can be seen as factors intensifying feelings of isolation, especially among the elderly, leading to increased vulnerability to egoistic suicide.
  • Altruistic Suicide: Here, individuals are too integrated into societal norms, leading them to end their lives for a perceived greater good. Historically, the practice of ‘Sati’ (widow immolation) and ‘Jauhar’ (mass self-immolation by women to avoid capture) can be viewed through this lens. Although outlawed and largely eradicated, such practices reflect the deep cultural roots of altruistic suicide in parts of India.
  • Anomic Suicide: Stemming from sudden disruptions in individuals’ lives, leading to an inability to cope. Economic downturns, job losses, or societal upheavals can lead to this. In the Indian context, the farmer suicides, especially in states like Maharashtra, can be attributed to anomic factors where economic hardships, unpredictable monsoons, and debt burdens precipitate tragic outcomes.
  • Fatalistic Suicide: Although Durkheim didn’t extensively discuss this in his work, it implies suicide resulting from oppressive societal norms. In the Indian context, it can be linked to individuals who face insurmountable societal pressures, like LGBTQ+ individuals in traditionally conservative areas or young lovers from different castes or religions facing societal backlash.

Understanding Durkheim’s categories in the Indian context provides a lens to analyze the diverse sociocultural factors influencing suicide. With India’s intricate tapestry of tradition, rapid modernization, and societal norms, addressing the root causes necessitates a deep understanding of these categories and the regional and cultural nuances attached to them.

CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE ON SUICIDE IN INDIA

Modern India stands at the crossroads of rapid socio-economic development, digital globalization, and deeply rooted traditional beliefs. This unique intersection has shaped the nation’s contemporary views on suicide:

  • Media’s Role: With the proliferation of digital media, discussions around suicide are becoming more frequent. However, media coverage can be a double-edged sword. Sensationalized reporting can sometimes inadvertently lead to “copycat” suicides, prompting calls for more responsible and sensitive portrayals of the issue.
  • Urban-Rural Divide: Rapid urbanization and the stress of city life have led to an increase in the number of suicides in metropolitan areas. On the other hand, agrarian distress, especially in states like Maharashtra and Telangana, has been a driving factor behind rural suicides.
  • Mental Health Awareness: There’s a growing recognition of mental health issues as significant contributors to suicide. Initiatives like the Mental Healthcare Act 2017 reflect a shift towards decriminalizing suicide and emphasizing the importance of mental well-being. Despite this, stigmas persist, especially in rural and conservative pockets, making it challenging for many to seek help.
  • Educational Pressures: The increasing importance placed on academic excellence and the competitive nature of entrance examinations have put immense pressure on the youth. Instances of student suicides post-exam results have instigated debates on the education system and its inherent pressures.
  • LGBTQ+ Community: With the decriminalization of homosexuality in 2018 (Section 377), there’s been a renewed focus on the mental health challenges faced by the LGBTQ+ community. Despite legal progress, societal acceptance is still evolving, and many from the community grapple with issues of identity, discrimination, and mental health, sometimes leading to self-harm.
  • Legislation and Intervention: While suicide was decriminalized in 2017, the act of attempting suicide was only recently decriminalized, marking a shift from punishment to rehabilitation and care. More helplines, NGOs, and counselingcenters are sprouting across urban centers, signaling a more proactive approach to the issue.

AN ANALYTICAL LOOK AT DEMOGRAPHIC VARIATIONS

  • Age: The age group of 15-29 years consistently reports a higher incidence of suicide. The pressures of academic performance, early career challenges, and personal relationships often collide during these formative years, increasing vulnerability.

  • Gender: While more men commit suicide in absolute numbers, the rate of suicide attempts is reportedly higher among women. The disparity could be due to societal pressures, domestic issues, and the methods used.

  • Urban vs. Rural: Rural areas, especially in regions facing agrarian crises, register a higher suicide rate. The stressors here, like indebtedness and crop failure, are starkly different from urban stressors, which often revolve around isolation, professional pressures, and lifestyle challenges.

FEMALE SUICIDES IN INDIA

  • Irrespective of education and financial independence, women are still not as empowered as we would like to believe. Gender-based discrimination is still prevalent, and this inherent bias is reflected in the high number of female suicides.
  • India’s female suicide burden is enormous. Indian women make up 36 percent of all global suicides in the 15 to 39 years age group – the highest share of any nation in the world.
  • National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2021 has thrown light on some grim trends, fuelling concern over mental health and social status of women in India.
  • A total of 1,64,033 suicides were reported in the country during 2021, showing an increase of 7.2 percent in comparison to 2020. Housewives constitute a major chunk of these deaths.
  • Family problems, illnesses, and marital issues are the principal contributors behind female suicides in India.
  • Family problems, illness, love affairs, and failure in exams emerged as the chief causes behind suicide deaths of girls below the age of 18 years in India.
  • A seminal Lancet Public Health study (2018) on suicides in Indian women speculates that the increasing number of female suicides may be related to a conflict between women’s increasing education and empowerment and the persistence of their lower status in Indian society.

UNDERLYING CAUSES FOR SUICIDES IN INDIA

SOCIETAL PRESSURE

  • Academic and Career Expectations: The hyper-competitive nature of India’s educational system, with a limited number of seats in prestigious institutions and an emphasis on certain lucrative professions, puts immense pressure on students. Failure to meet these expectations can lead to a sense of hopelessness and despair. It is also because of the ‘left behind syndrome’ among the students.

For instance, As many as 23 students have reportedly died by suicide in Kota this year; 15 took the extreme step in 2022.

  • Marital and Family Issues: Familial and societal expectations surrounding marriage, including dowry demands and pressures to bear children (preferably male), can create significant distress. Additionally, marital discord, domestic violence, and forced unions contribute to the vulnerability of individuals, particularly women. The National Family Health Survey (2019-21) highlights the challenging circumstances faced by married women, including limited mobility, restricted financial autonomy, and marital control, as well as physical, sexual, and emotional abuse at the hands of their spouses.

For instance, The number of women who died by suicide in India reached a peak of 45,026 in 2021. More than half of them were housewives. The share of housewives in total female suicides is above the 50% mark.

MENTAL HEALTH

  • Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders: Mental disorders, particularly depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder, are significant contributors to suicides. Often, these conditions remain undiagnosed and untreated.
  • Stigma Associated with Seeking Help: The societal stigma surrounding mental health often prevents individuals from seeking help. Many see mental health issues as a sign of weakness or a source of shame, rather than treatable conditions.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

  • Financial Stress and Unemployment: Economic disparities and lack of stable employment opportunities, especially in densely populated urban areas, lead to financial instability and resultant stress, driving individuals to despair.
  • Farmers’ Suicides and Their Causes: The agrarian sector has witnessed a surge in suicides. Factors include crop failure, rising debts, inability to repay loans, and climate-induced challenges. Lack of access to modern agricultural tools, techniques, and fair pricing further exacerbate their vulnerability.

ACCESS TO MEANS

  • Pesticide Ingestion: As previously mentioned, the easy availability of toxic pesticides, particularly in rural settings, provides a lethal means. Restricting access to such substances could act as a preventative measure.
  • Hanging: Being a method that requires minimal resources and provides little opportunity for rescue or reversal, hanging becomes a common choice.
  • According to the NCRB data, in 2021, 57 per cent of the total suicides occurred by hanging, while 25.1 per cent happened by poison consumption.

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS

  • Honour and Shame Dynamics: In many parts of India, family honor is paramount. Instances of perceived “dishonour,” like inter-caste relationships, can lead to extreme measures, both by the individuals involved and by family members.
  • Role of Caste and Communal Issues: Caste-based discrimination and communal tensions have been sources of significant distress in the country. Marginalized individuals, especially from lower castes, often face systemic discrimination, leading to feelings of hopelessness.

For instance, Rohith Vemula, Darshan Solanki, Aniket Ambhore, Payal Tadvi. The common link between these alleged suicides is caste discrimination and harassment.

The interplay of multiple factors, from societal expectations and economic pressures to mental health challenges and access to lethal means, converge to make suicide a pressing issue in India. Addressing it requires multi-pronged, empathetic, and culturally sensitive approach.

THE RIPPLE EFFECT OF SUICIDE

IMPACT ON FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES

  • Grief and Trauma: The immediate family members experience profound grief, often accompanied by a sense of guilt, wondering if they could have done something to prevent the tragedy. This prolonged grieving process can sometimes lead to complicated grief or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
  • Stigmatization: In many communities, there’s a persistent stigma associated with suicide. Families of the deceased might face social isolation, with community members either avoiding them out of discomfort or assigning blame.
  • Generational Impact: Children who lose a parent or sibling to suicide are at a higher risk for depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation themselves. The trauma can disrupt their developmental process, leading to academic challenges, behavioral problems, and difficulties in forming relationships.
  • Breakdown of Family Structures: The emotional toll can strain relationships within the family. Spouses might drift apart, siblings might experience increased conflict, and the overall family cohesion might be compromised.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

  • Loss of Income: If the deceased was a primary breadwinner, the family could face immediate economic hardships. This is especially acute in rural areas where farmer suicides leave families with debts and reduced means to earn.
  • Medical and Funeral Costs: The process leading to the suicide might involve medical expenses, especially if there was a suicide attempt before the actual act. Moreover, funeral costs can be a burden, further straining the family’s finances.
  • Nationwide Economic Impact: On a macro level, the premature loss of working-age individuals impacts the nation’s productivity and potential GDP growth. There are also indirect costs involved in terms of medical care, counseling, and other support services.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON SURVIVORS

  • Survivor’s Guilt: Those close to the deceased often grapple with intense feelings of guilt, constantly questioning their actions and wondering if they could have intervened.
  • Increased Risk of Mental Health Disorders: Survivors, especially immediate family members, have a heightened risk of developing mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, and PTSD.
  • Suicidal Ideation: Exposure to suicide increases the risk of suicidal ideation in survivors. They might view suicide as a viable option to escape their overwhelming grief and guilt.
  • Need for Therapy and Counseling: The trauma can necessitate long-term psychological support. However, due to the stigma associated with both suicide and mental health services, many might avoid seeking help, exacerbating their distress.

 CHALLENGES IN ADDRESSING THE ISSUE

INSUFFICIENT DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH

  • Inadequate Reporting: Not all suicides are reported, and many are often misclassified due to societal pressures, stigma, or administrative oversights. The actual numbers could be much higher than what’s officially recorded.
  • Lack of Comprehensive Studies: While the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) provides yearly statistics, there’s a dearth of in-depth research studying patterns, causes, and other qualitative aspects of suicides in India.
  • Under reporting of Suicide Attempts: Due to legal and societal implications, suicide attempts are often under reported. Without this data, it becomes challenging to understand the extent of the crisis and design effective interventions.

STIGMA AND SOCIETAL NORMS

  • Silence Surrounding Mental Health: The cultural and social stigma surrounding mental health issues often prevents individuals from discussing their challenges openly or seeking help.
  • Misunderstandings about Suicide: In many communities, suicide is misinterpreted as an act of cowardice, a crime, or a sin, rather than a manifestation of deep psychological distress. Such misconceptions can deter preventive measures.
  • Pressure to Conform: Societal norms, especially regarding academic and career achievements, gender roles, and marital expectations, exert significant pressure. Speaking out or seeking help against these norms can be challenging for many.

RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS IN RURAL AND UNDERSERVED AREAS

  • Limited Mental Health Professionals: India faces a stark deficit of trained mental health professionals. As per a World Health Organization (WHO) report, there are roughly 0.3 psychiatrists, 0.12 nurses, and 0.07 psychologists per 100,000 people in India. This shortage is even more pronounced in rural areas.
  • Inadequate Infrastructure: Many districts, particularly in remote regions, lack dedicated mental health facilities, compelling individuals to travel long distances for treatment.
  • Financial Constraints: The cost of mental health care, even if available, might be prohibitive for many, particularly those in the lower socio-economic strata.
  • Lack of Awareness: In many rural and underserved communities, there’s a limited understanding of mental health issues. Traditional beliefs, lack of education, and misconceptions can overshadow evidence-based approaches to mental well-being.

 PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

  • Mental Healthcare Act 2017: This landmark legislation not only decriminalized suicide but also emphasized the rights of individuals with mental health issues to seek and receive quality care.
  • District Mental Health Programme (DMHP): Launched as part of the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP), DMHP aims to provide mental health services at the grassroots level, especially in rural and underserved areas.
  • National Suicide Prevention Strategy 2022: While still in the proposal phase, there have been ongoing discussions about implementing a dedicated nationwide strategy, involving multi-sectoral collaborations and evidence-based interventions.
  • KIRAN: The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has launched a 24/7 toll-free helpline “KIRAN” to provide support to people facing anxiety, stress, depression, suicidal thoughts and other mental health concerns.
  • Manodarpan Initiative: Manodarpan was an initiative of the Ministry of Education under Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan. It was aimed to provide psychosocial support to students, family members and teachers for their mental health and well-being during the times of Covid-19.

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOS)

  • Vandrevala Foundation: This organization operates a 24/7 helpline providing counseling to individuals in distress.
  • Roshni: Based in Hyderabad, Roshni offers tele-counseling services and has been a beacon of hope for many.
  • Mann: This NGO focuses on mental health awareness and early interventions among school and college students.
  • iCall: Supported by Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), iCall offers email and tele-counseling services to individuals in need.

COMMUNITY INITIATIVES

Grassroot Efforts to Address and Prevent Suicides:

  • Farmer Cooperatives: In states like Maharashtra and Telangana, where farmer suicides are prevalent, community-based cooperatives focus on sustainable agriculture, debt relief, and mutual support systems.
  • Community Counseling Centers: In various regions, local groups have established centers where community members can seek guidance, counseling, and support.

MENTAL HEALTH AWARENESS

Efforts to Destigmatize Mental Health and Promote Well-being:

  • Mental Health Festivals: Events like “The Mind Diaries” or “The Happy Place” aim to foster conversations around mental well-being, using art, music, and dialogues.
  • School and College Programs: There’s a growing emphasis on integrating mental health awareness within educational curriculums. Initiatives focus on stress management, emotional well-being, and building resilience.
  • Corporate Initiatives: Recognizing the stress of modern work environments, many corporate offices in India are now providing employee assistance programs, mental health days, and wellness workshops.

CASE STUDY

Kota is a place best known for its abundance of coaching centres. It is the third most populous city in Rajasthan, and a large chunk of that population is attributed to aspirants of medical and engineering entrance tests. In such a setting, intense pressure and soul-tearing competition are at its peak throughout the year. Students go through a traumatizing experience that compares to the most gruesome trials a human being can go through.

In the wake of this plight, Horlicks put together a campaign #fearlesskota to assuage some of the emotional strain that the young inhabitants of Kota go through.

It was executed by asking the mothers of the kids studying in Kota to pack their personalized symbols of love in Horlicks bottles. From home-made butter to Banana chips, the mothers of these kids packed them a wide array of items that reconnected them with their roots.

INDIA’S SUICIDE RATE AND PREVENTION EFFORTS VS. OTHER COUNTRIES

SUICIDE RATE

  • India: As per the World Health Organization’s data prior to 2022, India accounted for a significant proportion of global suicides, with a rate that fluctuated around 16-17 suicides per 100,000 people. The numbers, however, varied substantially based on factors like gender, age, and region.
  • Global Average: The global average, in the same time frame, hovered around 10.5 per 100,000.
  • Comparative Figures:
    • Russia: Known for one of the highest suicide rates globally, Russia’s rate stood at approximately 26 per 100,000.
    • Japan: While Japan has garnered international attention for its high suicide rate, efforts in recent years brought down the rate to around 14 per 100,000.
    • USA: The U.S. witnessed an increase over the years, reaching approximately 14 per 100,000.
    • Scandinavian Countries: Nations like Sweden and Norway, often lauded for their quality of life, have rates of around 11-12 per 100,000.

PREVENTION EFFORTS

  • India:
    • The decriminalization of suicide and the emphasis on mental health through the Mental Healthcare Act 2017 are significant steps forward.
    • The National Mental Health Programme and District Mental Health Programme aim to decentralize mental health services.
    • However, challenges persist in terms of infrastructure, trained professionals, and awareness campaigns.
  • Global Comparative Efforts:
    • Japan: The country instituted a multi-pronged strategy, incorporating governmental initiatives, corporate responsibility, and public awareness campaigns. Their efforts have led to a decline in suicide rates.
    • USA: The U.S. has a National Strategy for Suicide Prevention, involving community-based interventions, helplines, and a strong emphasis on mental health research.
    • Scandinavian Countries: These nations prioritize mental well-being, with comprehensive mental health policies, accessible care, and robust public awareness initiatives.
    • Russia: Despite its high rates, efforts such as restrictions on the sale of alcohol and increased mental health services aim to bring down the numbers.

THE CONCLUSION: While India has made strides in recognizing the gravity of the issue and implementing preventive measures, decriminalising suicide and enacting mental Healthcare Act, there’s still a long way to go when compared to other countries. The nation’s unique socio-cultural dynamics necessitate tailored strategies suited to India.

Mains Practice Questions:

Q.1 What are the various causes that are driving India’s students to suicide? What can we do to prevent it?

Q.2 Prioritising inclusion and support is the key to suicide prevention. Discuss.

Q.3 The rate of suicide among Indian men is 2.5 times of that among women. Discuss the reasons.




TOPIC: WHETHER THE AFSPA IS A SOLUTION TO THE SECURITY CHALLENGES IN NORTHEAST INDIA?

THE CONTEXT: The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) has been extended in the hill areas of the Manipur state except for some areas in the Imphal Valley and four district of Assam for six more months from starting from October 1, 2023. The extension is due to a surge in ethnic violence and insurgent activities. This article analyses the AFSPA legislation and various issues related to its implementation from the UPSC perspective.

ABOUT THE ARMED FORCES (SPECIAL POWERS) ACT, 1958

  • The Act came into force in 1958 in the context of increasing violence in the Northeastern States, which the State governments found difficult to control.
  • The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Bill was passed by both the Houses of Parliament, and it was approved by the President on September 11, 1958. It became known as the Armed Forces Special Powers Act, 1958.
  • AFSPA gives armed forces the power to maintain public order in “disturbed areas”.
  • Under the Act, armed forces have the authority to prohibit a gathering of five or more persons in an area, can use force or even open fire after giving due warning if they feel a person is in contravention of the law.
  • If reasonable suspicion exists, the army can also arrest a person without a warrant; enter or search a premises without a warrant and ban the possession of firearms.
  • Any person arrested or taken into custody may be handed over to the officer in charge of the nearest police station along with a report detailing the circumstances that led to the arrest.

What is a “disturbed area” and who has the power to declare it?

  • A disturbed area is one which is declared by notification under Section 3 of the AFSPA. An area can be disturbed due to differences or disputes between members of different religious, racial, language or regional groups or castes or communities.
  • The Central Government or the G
  • overnor of the State or administrator of the Union Territory can declare the whole or part of the State or Union Territory as a disturbed area. A suitable notification would have to be made in the Official Gazette in this regard.
  • As per Section 3 of the Act, it can be invoked in places where “the use of armed forces in aid of the civil power is necessary”.
  • The Ministry of Home Affairs would usually enforce this Act where necessary, but there have been exceptions where the Centre decided to forego its power and leave the decision to the State governments.

At present it is applied in which states?

States under AFSPA include:

1. Entire state of Assam

2. Entire state of Nagaland

3. Entire state of Manipur (excluding seven assembly constituencies of Imphal)

4. Arunachal Pradesh (only the Tirap, Changlang and Longding districts plus a 20-km belt bordering Assam).

5. Jammu and Kashmir too has a similar Act.

It was completely lifted from Meghalaya in April 2018. It was repealed in Tripura in 2015.

WHY THE AFSPA IS NEEDED?

NATIONAL SECURITY AND TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY

  • With the powers given by AFSPA, the armed forces have been able to protect the borders of the country and internal insurgency for decades.
  • For example, without the army’s counter-terrorism measures under the AFSPA, India could have lost Jammu and Kashmir in the 1990s.
  • The government at the time had almost given up, but the army stood firm in its constitutional duty to safeguard and retain every inch of Indian territory.
  • Therefore, a strict law is needed to tackle the insurgent elements inside the country particularly in the Kashmir and northeastern region for effective Counter-insurgency and to protect borders.

TOUGH MEASURE FOR TERRORISM

  • A major reason for the continuation of this Act is violence, extortion and increasing terrorism in the country.
  • Here, this Act enhances the ability of the security forces to keep terrorism under check.
  • As, terrorism would never have been rooted out in Punjab or Mizoram without the AFSPA and without the tough measures that were taken by the security forces operating under the protection of the Act.
  • If AFSPA is repealed, that will create a huge gap in the security grid and will give terrorists, be they in Kashmir and Manipur, the upper hand.

INEFFICIENCY OF ORDINARY LAWS

  • The AFSPA is applied to an area only when the ordinary laws of the land are found to be inadequate to deal with the extraordinary situation perpetrated by insurgents spreading terror.
  • The AFSPA is in force in areas where abnormality prevails and where the terrorists do not observe the niceties of the Constitution.
  • Extraordinary situations demand extraordinary measures, and AFSPA is what is required to deal with anti-Indian terrorists whose stated objective is breaking up the country.

OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

  • AFSAP provides a framework for operation requirements in the area where there is absence of a legal statute and which would adversely affect organisational flexibility and the utilisation of the security capacity of the state.
  • Therefore, the Act allows armed forces to fulfill their assigned role and allows soldiers to carry out military operations which would otherwise, in the absence of any legal mandate, be legally and morally questionable.

PROTECTS THE RIGHT OF SOLDIER

  • AFSPA boosts the morale or mental well-being of the armed forces for ensuring the public order in the disturbed areas and removal of the Act would lead to militants motivating locals to file lawsuits against the army.
  • As, soldier is also a citizen with equal obligations and the same rights as any other Indian citizen who voluntarily stripes themselves from fundamental rights. In this respect, AFSPA provide the armed forces the means and essentials to perform the responsibilities and tasks assigned to them.

THE ISSUES IN AFSPA

VIOLATE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

  • There is repeated concern of misuse of powers by armed forces which in turn violates human rights and fundamental rights of the citizen. It is against the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which India has signed.
  • There are several instances where the armed forces have found to be misusing the oppressive powers given by the Act like fake encounters, sexually exploiting the women in the disturbed areas.
  • Also, the more disturbing fact is that the armed forces escape with impunity for their actions since legal suits cannot be filed against them as per the Act.

MALIGN INTERNATIONAL IMAGE

  • India is often considered as a country around the world that gives significance to the rights and liberties of its citizens.
  • But, with the actions under AFSPA Act in the states of Manipur, Jammu & Kashmir, Nagaland it is giving the wrong image that law in making a mockery of human rights which is maligning the image of nation in internation arena.
  • Over the years, people have campaigned to repeal the Act and even international organizations like Amnesty International have asked the courts in India to look into the matter deeply and conduct investigations regarding rampant misuse of powers by armed forces.

UNCONSTITUTIONALITY OF AFSPA

  • AFSPA is increasingly being recognized as a draconian, discriminatory and oppressive law that transforms India from a democratic country to an authoritarian one due to its unconstitutional and undemocratic nature.
  • Investigating the constitutionality of AFSPA is a continuing concern within the legal sphere as it is continuously violating Article 14(Equality before law), Article 19(Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech etc) and Article 21(Protection of life and personal liberty) among others.

LAW WITH MINDSET OF COLONIAL ERA

  • Armed Forces Special Powers Act, 1958 has also sometimes being compared to the Rowlatt Act where any suspicious person can be arrested only based on doubt like in the AFSPA.
  • Under Rowlatt Act too Britishers gave themselves unbridled powers to imprison any person on the basis of any suspicion of them being involved in any terrorist activity against British India for up to 2 years without giving them a chance for a trial.

NOT A BETTER SOLUTION

  • Critics argue that this Act has failed in its objective of restoring normalcy in disturbed areas although being in existence for about 50 years.
  • Critics also assert that there is no need to run the nation on the basis of the bullet while the issue could be addressed on the basis of the ballet (election).

WHETHER THE AFSPA NEEDS TO BE REMOVED?

With all the prevailing issues of AFSPA, concerns have continuously raised to repeal the Act.

  • The core argument raised in the repealing of the Act is based on violation of Article 21 of Indian constitution i.e. the right to life: ‘No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.’
  • AFSPA allows even a non-commissioned officer, normally a class 10 pass jawan with about 12 years of service in the ranks, to be above the law and pass a ‘Kill’ decision without giving the other party a fair chance to explain his case. This is a clear infringement of Article 21 (Right to life) because the accused was sentenced to death without being heard.
  • Also, the term ‘procedure established by law’ cannot mean any procedure passed as an Act by parliament. There must be rule of law, not rule by law. In the famous case of Maneka Gandhi, it has been held that any procedure established by law if unjust would not be a procedure at all.
  • The two sections of the AFSPA that violate ‘due process’ are sections 4a and 7.

1. Under Sec 4 a – Any commissioned officer, warrant officer, non-commissioned officer or officer of equivalent Act, in a ‘Disturbed Area after giving such warning as he may consider necessary, fire upon or otherwise use force, even to the causing of death against any person who is acting in contravention of any law or order.

2. Under Sec 7 – No prosecution, suit or other legal proceedings shall be instituted except with the previous sanction of the central government, against any person in respect of anything done or purported to be done in exercise of powers conferred by this Act.

  • ‘Due process of law’ must be ‘fair’ and even a minimalist reading of ‘fairness’ demands that the person be informed of the charge and be given an opportunity to refute t it. This is the principle of natural justice and one canon of natural justice is audi alteram partem i.e. both sides should be heard.
  • Even, if the case to impose AFSPA in an area goes to the court, state claims that residents of a state or district under the Disturbed Area Act cannot claim equality before law (Article 14), with residents of areas not under that Act, in being subject to different laws. They substantiate their argument by saying that Article 14 does not forbid ‘reasonable classification’ for the purposes of legislation. However, that argument does not hold good for making a law that violates the ‘Right to Life’.
  • Another argument is given that the removal of AFSPA endanger the life of troops since they will now be wary of shooting first, which it will, in some cases. However, if they do commit mistakes as ‘genuine errors’, the law will provide them with a full opportunity to prove it in court.
  • Therefore, the time is now ripe for a fresh judicial review of AFSPA by the Supreme Court. India will not get weakened by the removal of AFSPA and in fact, it will be strengthened because the removal of an unjust umbrella will force units to desist from wrong acts and that will increase the willingness of ordinary citizens to abide by the law.

WHETHER AFSPA IS A SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS IN MANIPUR?

  • The Hill areas in Manipur will continue to be under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) for another six months from October.
  • In this respect, question arises whether the AFSPA is still needed to be extended given the violent ethnic conflict between the Meitei and the Kuki communities since May 2023.
  • The Army had sought its re-imposition, as it felt that the absence of the law is hampering its operations against insurgent groups, which may be using the unrest to gain a foothold in the State.
  • Government argument in this regard is that AFSPA is meant only to provide legal protection to forces engaged in counter-insurgency operations amidst internal conflict. Even, the notification says the issue of declaring an area as ‘disturbed’ is quite sensitive and it may lead to public criticism and resistance.
  • One of the reasons for the government maintaining the status quo on the extent of the ‘disturbed areas’ is that a detailed assessment of the ground situation is not possible at the moment with widespread violence.
  • However, the Centre should not delay any serious initiative further to bring about reconciliation between the two communities to deter this violent situation as AFSPA can be a short-term solution but a fresh approach is need to resolve the issue permanently.

THE WAY FORWARD

  • Work on root cause: Secessionist movements in the country signify the failure of politics, and it is up to the government to resolve the root causes. There is need to create conditions which can convince the insurgents to stop insurgency, militants to stop militancy, terrorists to stop terror. Until then, AFSPA can function with keeping the army empowered and using the force only as a last resort.
  • Ensure responsibility: With current existing provisions of AFSPA or other enabling legal measures it becomes the responsibility of authorized person to execute military operation with restraint. Stringent rules, guidelines and advisories need to be in existence regarding the respect for human rights and fundamental rights.
  • Implement committee recommendation: The government and the security forces should also abide by the guidelines set out by the Supreme Court, Jeevan Reddy Commission, and the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC). The Jeevan Reddy committee even recommended that some of the provisions should be transferred to Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 and asked to set up ‘grievance cell’ that will do the work to enquire into the complaints filed for violation of basic human rights.
  • Need of accountability: Official should be held accountable for their actions and stringent disciplinary actions should be taken after departmental inquiries. This will deter the armed forces from taking immediate actions that are unlawful.
  • Reduce the implementation area under the Act on case-by-case basis: The status quo of the Act is no longer an acceptable solution due to numerous human rights violation incidents that have occurred over the years. The government should consider the imposition and lifting of AFSPA on a case-by-case basis and limit its application only to a few disturbing districts instead of applying it to the whole state.

THE CONCLUSION:  The AFSPA has been alleged that it has become a symbol of oppression in the areas it has been implemented. Hence the government needs to address the problems of affected people and reassure them of favourable action. The armed forces must be completely transparent in investigating allegations of violations of human rights. There should be a mechanism put in place to utilize the best use of the army in situations of internal conflict.

MAINS QUESTIONS

Q.1 Critically analyse the implementation of the Armed Forces (special powers) Act, 1958 to ensure territorial integrity and harmony in North-East India.

Q.2 How far do you agree with the view that implementation of the Armed Forces (special powers) Act, 1958 will bring peace and stability in the state of Manipur? Give justification to your view.




TOPIC- MOODY’s REPORT ON AADHAAR AND RELATED CONCERNS

THE CONTEXT- A recently published report by Moody’s, a U.S.-based global credit rating agency, has flagged serious concerns about security and privacy vulnerabilities in the Aadhaar, India’s ambitious digital identification programme for residents. The report titled, “Decentralized Finance and Digital Assets”, appreciated the scale and innovative nature of Aadhaar but red-flagged risks from using “centralised” digital ID systems which often lead to exclusion of beneficiaries and denial of entitlements and services promised under welfare schemes by the government.

WHAT IS AADHAAR?

  • Aadhaar number is a 12-digit random number issued by the UIDAI (Unique Identification Authority of India) to the residents of India after satisfying the verification process laid down by the Authority. Any individual, irrespective of age and gender, who is a resident of India, may voluntarily enrol to obtain Aadhaar number.
  • The enrolment process is cost-free and requires a person to provide minimal demographic and biometric information such as ten Fingerprints, two Iris Scans, and facial photograph.
  • Aadhaar enrolment is done through existing public and private infrastructure.
  • While a Central Identities Data Repository (CIDR) is managed by the UIDAI, ‘Registrars’ who handle enrolment through authorised connections to the CIDR, are UIDAI partners.
  • The objectives of UIDAI were to ensure that all residents have a unique ID and to curb corruption in accessing welfare programmes by eliminating “ghost” and “fake” individuals. This is ensured through Aadhar-seeding with the welfare schemes whereby the government linked the database of beneficiaries with the Aadhaar database.
  • India is not the only country to have adopted a foundational identity system; countries such as Sweden, Argentina and Nigeria also have similar digital ID schemes in place.

EVOLUTION OF AADHAAR IN INDIA:

2006

Unique Identify (UID) Scheme for poor families was approved by the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology.

2007

The need for creation of a residents’ database was underscored by the Empowered Group of Ministers.

2010

National Identification Authority of India Bill, 2010 was introduced in the Parliament.

2011

Standing Committee on Finance rejected the Bill and recommended the need for a legislation to protect privacy and data of the individuals.

2013

An interim order was passed by the Supreme Court (SC) stating that no person should suffer from not having Aadhaar.

2015

A 3-Judge SC Bench limited the use of Aadhar for certain welfare schemes.

2016

Aadhar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies, Benefits and Services) Bill was introduced as Money Bill in the Parliament which received the Presidential assent

2017

Aadhar was made mandatory by the Central government for welfare, pension and employment schemes as well as for filing the Income Tax Returns (ITR).

2018

5-judge Constitutional Bench having heard 30 petitions challenging validity of the Aadhar, upheld its validity.

Ruled out the need for Aadhar to open a bank account, get a SIM card or school admissions, or to take examinations etc.

KEY HIGHLIGHTS OF THE REPORT:

Issues stemming from Centralised Digital ID systems:

  • Aadhaar touted as the world’s largest digital ID program, assigns unique numbers to over 1.3 billion Indian residents using biometric and demographic data.
  • Verification through biometrics and OTPs allows the beneficiaries to access various public and private services. However, Moody’s highlighted the centralised control of Aadhar data by the government through the UIDAI and the potential misuse or exploitation of personal data by a ‘Surveillance State’.
  • This violates the fundamental right to privacy enshrined under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution and the landmark Puttaswamy Judgement of the apex court of India.

Privacy & Security Concerns

  • Since Aadhaar and its seeding with various welfare schemes and public services is built on enormous sensitive data, it is often susceptible to data breaches and data theft.
  • The concerns of security and privacy are rooted in the lack of adequate data protection legislation and growing cyberattacks from adversaries, through Dark Net.

Case study- Cyble, a global cyber intelligence agency, in June 2020, highlighted the issue of sale of sensitive data such as Aadhar data, PAN cards etc. on the Dark Web. Cyble hinted at probable leakage of such sensitive data by the private/third party agencies having access to personal data of individuals in the country.

  • Sensitive data, such as biometrics, carry a high risk of exploitation. For instance, biometrics can be exploited through “man-in-the-middle” attacks, where attackers gain access to biometric data that they can misuse to access an individual’s financial resources. This is especially concerning in the case of marginalized communities.

Concerns due to Biometric Authentication

  • The denial of services to beneficiaries of various welfare schemes such as MGNREGA, PDS, etc. due to difficulties in Aadhar biometric authentication is one of the concerns.
  • The labourers from hot, humid climates and manual labourers whose fingerprints are susceptible to change or fade over time, face denial of services/entitlements under MGNREGA, PDS or subsidy schemes.
  • The texture of fingerprints alters according to the climate. For instance, in humid climate, fingers become saturated and wrinkled, resulting in acquisition of fingerprints of degraded accuracy.
  • On the other hand, hot and arid climate leads to skin dryness, posing challenges for fingerprints authentication. Dry, non-pliable skin fails to lay flat on sensors, preventing the ridges from making sufficient contact. As a result, the resultant fingerprint quality is compromised.
  • The failures in authentication in many cases, has also resulted into cancellation of legitimate beneficiary names from some welfare schemes.

Case study of Jharkhand (2021)- People were refused support under PDS due to biometric failure and other technological Aadhar glitches. This led to starvation and death of some people.

WHAT HAS BEEN THE GOVERNMENT’S RESPONSE TO MOODY’S REPORT ON AADHAR?

The Indian government held the Moody’s findings as baseless and has reassured confidence in the Aadhaar technology and system. The Moody’s report lacked sufficient reasons and evidence (primary or secondary data or research) to back its findings; hence, its findings have no substance.

  • DBT payments under MGNREGA: The Government of India stressed that as far as the question of deniability of services and payments to workers under MGNREGA was concerned, the government has in place the system of DBT wherein the money is directly credited to the accounts of the labourers, and this does not require the worker to authenticate using their biometrics.
  • Alternatives to Biometrics in place: Moody’s has ignored that biometric submission is also possible through contactless means like face authentication and iris authentication. In addition, the option of mobile OTP is also available in many use cases.
  • Internationally applauded and Recognised system: Recently, the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI), in a report prepared by the World Bank, appreciated the implementation of Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) such as Aadhaar along with the Jan Dhan bank accounts, and mobile phones, which played a critical role in moving ownership of transaction accounts from approximately one-fourth of adults in 2008 to over 80% now.

In the absence of Aadhar and supporting services, this journey would have taken up to 47 years.

  • Safety measures introduced by the UIDAI: Virtual Aadhar is a revocable temporary 16-digit random number linked to the Aadhaar number. When executing authentication or e-KYC services, VID can be utilised instead of Aadhaar number. The UIDAI has warned the “general public not to share photocopy of one’s Aadhaar with any organisation, because it can be misused”. Instead, it recommended that “a masked Aadhaar, which displays only the last four digits of your Aadhaar number,” be used for such purposes.

DECENTRALISED DIGITAL IDs as an Alternative Solution:

Moody’s Report having criticised the centralised Digital IDs such as Aadhar, pitched the concept of Decentralised Digital IDs as an alternative solution. Moody’s emphasises that although DID systems are still in their early stages of development, they hold substantial potential to offer a more robust and private avenue for managing digital identities.

  • Decentralized ID systems (DIDs) use cryptography, digital wallets and related technologies to enable multiple entities to contribute credentials and empower individuals to manage their data.
  • Unlike traditional systems, DID allows individuals to own and control their digital credentials.
  • In DID, a person’s personal data is securely stored in their digital wallet, and the process of verifying their identity does not rely on a single, centralized institution.
  • Instead, it occurs on a decentralised digital ledger, such as a blockchain which makes it more secure and reliable compared to the centralised systems such as Aadhar.
  • Instead of entrusting a third party to store, manage and transmit data on their behalf, individuals can use decentralized ID systems to exchange credentials directly with one another or a service provider. This helps in reducing the number of intermediaries and increasing efficiency.
  • Decentralized ID systems may also enhance effectiveness by reducing the number of times information has to be verified, which could increase convenience, reduce risk and diminish costs.

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH DECENTRALISED DIGITAL IDs:

  • Political risks: While decentralized ID offers a way for individuals to exercise greater control over their personal data, depending on its use context, it could still contribute to polarization. Digital IDs issued by social media companies can contribute to political polarization by reinforcing group identities.
  • Data Security Risks: Although decentralized ID aims to minimize data collection and data storage, it still risks increasing the collection of sensitive personal data, opening the possibility of theft or leakage.
  • Nascent Stage: DID systems are still in their early stages of development. Therefore, the associated policies, regulations and standards are lacking.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENTRALISED AND DECENTRALISED DIGITAL IDs:

FINANCIAL SAVINGS due to AADHAR SEEDING:

About 300 schemes of the Central Government and 400 schemes of state Governments have been linked with Aadhaar. The Aadhar-seeding has helped the government in weeding out about 6 crore fake and duplicate beneficiaries due to which savings worth Rs.90,000 crore have been reported as per the UIDAI.

WAY FORWARD:

In order to address the challenges associated with digital IDs such as Aadhar etc., the following measures must be taken into account:

  • Robust Data Protection Framework: FATF recommends that digital ID be accompanied by the development of robust, fit-for-purpose regulations. For instance, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) implemented by the European Union in 2018 which applies to all organisations that process the personal data of EU citizens, regardless of the location of the organisation. Individuals are given the right to access, rectify and erase their personal data as well as the right to data portability.

KS PUTTASWAMY JUDGEMENT (2017):

A nine-judge bench of the Supreme Court in Justice K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) Vs Union of India unanimously held that the constitutionally protected fundamental right to privacy is an intrinsic part of life and liberty under Article 21.

Therefore, having a robust and comprehensive legislation aimed at protecting the sensitive personal data such as Aadhar, is imperative for ensuring the privacy and security of residents in the country.

  • Cybersecurity Augmentation: FATF recommends that government and industry keep pace with technological change by encouraging stakeholder engagement, use of blockchain and cryptography, developing technical and cybersecurity expertise to improve data management, and attempting to educate and raise awareness of the potential of these technologies.
  • Decentralised Data Control and Access: As argued by the Moody’s, a person’s personal data is securely stored in their decentralised digital wallet built using blockchain and big data. Also, the process of verifying their identity does not rely on a single, centralized institution. The individuals whose data is being stored and processes must be given effective say in the collection, storage and deletion of data, especially the sensitive personal data like biometrics.

THE CONCLUSION- For an ID system to work for the citizens of a country, accountability and transparency must also be built into the system through meaningful consultations, independent audits and effective grievance redressal.  A well-designed system, with adequate safeguards in place, can facilitate civic empowerment and inclusion, unlocking significant economic value.

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

Q. Differentiate between centralised and decentralised digital IDs. Also, analyse the weaknesses in the centralised digital IDs.

Q. The centralised digital IDs pose some security and privacy challenges which can be overcome with adoption of decentralised Digital IDs. Comment.




TOPIC- EMERGING CHINA-BHUTAN AMITY AND THE CHALLENGES FOR INDIA

THE CONTEXT: Recently, the Bhutanese Foreign Minister paid a visit to China to hold talks with the Chinese Foreign Minister to establish diplomatic relations and to conclude the boundary negotiations. This is seen as unprecedented on various levels as this visit is the first ever by a Bhutanese Foreign minister to China. This article analyses the various facets of China, Bhutan and India relations from the UPSC PERSPECTIVE.

THE HIGHLIGHTS OF THE RECENT MEETING

  • China and Bhutan held their 25th round of boundary talks in Beijing and signed a Cooperation Agreement on the “Responsibilities and Functions of the Joint Technical Team (JTT) on the Delimitation and Demarcation of the Bhutan-China Boundary.”
  • This advances their 3-Step Roadmap initiated in 2021 for border resolution, building on the positive momentum since their last talks in 2016.

What is the 3-Step Roadmap?

  • The 3-Step roadmap MoU was signed by the Bhutanese Foreign Minister and Chinese Assistant Foreign Minister in 2021.
  • Here, Joint Technical Team (JTT) aims to implement the roadmap by the Expert Group to draw a line clearly delineating Bhutanese and Chinese territory for the first time. The three steps are:

1. Agreeing to the border “on the table”

2. Visiting the sites on the ground

3. Formally demarcating the boundary

BHUTAN-CHINA RELATIONS

HESITANT DIPLOMATIC TIES

  • Bhutan’s relationship with China is determined by its long-standing reservations about opening up to the world. Also, with China’s annexation of Tibet in the 1950s and the subsequent seizure of eight Bhutanese enclaves, Bhutan remains hesitant to establish ties with China.
  • Till now, there has been very less number of meetings between both the countries. Bhutan’s bilateral relations with India and China can hardly be independent of broader China-India relations. Bhutan has thus maintained a special relationship with India and a largely neutral relationship with China without any diplomatic ties.
  • Its foreign policy is determined by three factors: assuring territorial integrity and sovereignty, maintaining a balance of threat, and abiding by its self-interest.
  • However, over the past two decades, Bhutan has been witnessing internal and external changes that are forcing it to settle its longstanding territorial disputes with China, diversify its foreign relations, and accelerate economic growth.

IMPROVING RELATIONS

  • For China, diplomatic relations and dispute resolution with tiny-landlocked Bhutan is crucial for its status as an Asian power, and for improving its offensive position vis-a-vis India.
  • Hence, bilateral talks began in 1984 where China explicitly narrowed the disputed region to two sectors: In the north, the Pasamlung and Jakarlung valleys; and in the west, Dramana and Shakhatoe, Sinchulungpa and Langmar Po valley, Yak chu and Charithang valleys, and the Doklam plateau.
  • Later, Bhutan and China signed an MoU in 1988, finalised an agreement in 1998, and held 24 rounds of negotiations and 11 rounds of Expert Group Meetings (EGM) until 2016.

BORDER DISPUTES

  • Starting in 1984, Bhutan and China started bilateral negotiations on their territorial disputes. In 1998, Bhutan suggested an expert technical group that will draw the boundaries by studying maps.
  • By 2015, China and Bhutan had finished surveying the technical field survey reports of the Central and Western disputed sectors.
  • Despite these engagements and efforts, Chinese intrusions in Bhutanese territories occurred on regular occasions.
  • China had encouraged its citizens to settle in the disputed areas and built roads, infrastructure, and permanent settlements within Bhutanese territories.
  • A similar intrusion in the Doklam trijunction in 2017 triggered a standoff between India and China. In July 2020, China made new claims in Bhutan’s east—in the Sakteng wildlife sanctuary.
  • Between 2020-2021, several satellite images indicated that China is building new villages in Bhutan.

ECONOMIC ANGLE

  • The domestic economy has provided an additional incentive for Bhutan to expedite the negotiations with China.  Bhutan now sees China as an inevitable and inalienable part of the new world order for its path to recovery and reforms.
  • As a result, China’s exports to Bhutan have increased from ~2 billion in 2020 to ~15 billion in 2022.
  • The youth exodus triggered by structural issues and the lack of opportunities has further necessitated the need for reforms.
  • Bhutan’s imports are intense with capital and machine goods, durable items, and everyday appliances, indicating that as Bhutan grows, so will its reliance on China. Therefore, Bhutan has been hinting at ending the dispute and opening diplomatic relations with Beijing in recent years.

 INDIA’S PERSPECTIVE ON THE MEETING

  • With respect to these developments, India has maintained a strategic silence, indicating that it understands Bhutan’s situation and does not anticipate these developments to harm its interest. This demonstrates its trust in this special relationship while understanding Bhutan’s security and economic challenges.
  • India is respecting sovereignty of both the countries, and it has always held that an agreement between Bhutan and China is the sovereign decision of the two countries. India understands the situation and affirms that this is not a coalition against India’s interests, as even if the position does not remain identical to India Bhutan will remain mindful of Indian concerns.
  • Also, solving the border issue between Bhutan and China is favourable to India as well for its security and sovereignty reasons.

INDIA-BHUTAN RELATIONS

HISTORICAL RELATIONS

  • India and Bhutan have shared a cordial friendship for years. India and Bhutan enjoy a multifaceted relationship which are characterised by understanding and unique ties of friendship and cooperation.
  • There is close consultation and co-ordination between the two sides with mutual interest. This “special relationship” is governed by the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 1949, which was later updated in 2007.

BUFFER STATE

  • Bhutan is not just a neighbour, but a very important and strategic one. Its border with India is over 600 km long, and it plays the role of a buffer between China and India.
  • India views Bhutan as a “buffer” state against China’s aggression and military adventures.
  • Its adjacent location to the Siliguri Corridor or “chicken’s neck” which connects India to the rest of the North East Region (NER) has reinforced and strengthened these anxieties over a Chinese invasion and a potential isolation of the NER from the rest of the mainland.

INDIA AS EQUAL PARTNER

  • Article 2 of the treaty, which earlier stated that Bhutan would be guided by India “in regard to its external relations”, was revised in 2007. It now says that the two sides will cooperate “closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests”.
  • India does aim to have Bhutan as an equal partner, as also mentioned in the Friendship Treaty of 2007. It lays emphasis on “perpetual peace and friendship, free trade and commerce, and equal justice to each other’s citizens” between India and the Himalayan kingdom.

ECONOMIC RELATIONS

  • India is Bhutan’s biggest development partner. India is the largest source of imports for Bhutan. India imports nearly 70% of Bhutan’s total exports, and their trade has increased from ~94 billion in 2020 to ~134 billion in 2022.
  • India’s assistance with hydropower projects and Bhutan’s hydropower exports form a significant component of this economic relationship.
  • Similarly, India has offered assistance of nearly 4,500 crores for Bhutan’s current five-year plan.

SECURITY RELATIONS

  • Bhutan is also the only South Asian country that has consistently respected India’s security concerns and has resisted joining either projects linking China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the region or other forms of assistance such as grants and loans.
  • Therefore, India’s policy has also tried to accommodate Bhutan’s interests in order to sustain their economic integration and pursuit of common security goals. Both countries also enjoy close security cooperation.
  • The Indian Military Training Team continues to train Bhutanese soldiers, and the 2007 agreement legally obliges both countries to respect each other’s interest.

CULTURAL RELATIONS

  • Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy and one of the last remaining sovereign Himalayan kingdoms, whereas India is a democracy.
  • Despite their differences, both countries share an enduring relationship which is deeply rooted in history, spirituality and common values of Buddhist philosophies.

INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

  • India and Bhutan relations are also guided by India’s foreign policy, and it aligns with India’s Neighbourhood First policy.
  • India’s neighbourhood policy focuses on peaceful relations and collaborative synergetic with its South Asian neighbours.

 INDIA-CHINA RELATIONS

COMPLEX RELATIONS

  • India and China share a complex relationship with lots of ups and downs. Though, both countries have established various dialogue mechanisms at different levels to discuss political, economic, consular, and regional issues. India was the first non-socialist bloc country to establish diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China in 1950. Both countries have jointly advocated the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.
  • Despite these, both countries does not have peaceful relations, and there is a constant struggle on various fronts.

TRADE

  • Bilateral trade has grown significantly, reaching US$100 billion by 2022, with India becoming a large market for project exports from China.
  • Also, the economic relations between India and China have undergone significant changes in the past two years.
  • India has emphasized that it cannot be business as usual while tensions persist along the border. As a result, tighter restrictions have led to a decline in Chinese investment in India.

IMPORT DEPENDENCE

  • India’s significant reliance on Chinese imports has resulted in a substantial trade deficit of $100 billion between the two countries. Annual two-way trade exceeded $100 billion in 2021, with India’s imports accounting for the majority.
  • China accounted for over 5% of India’s total exports and more than 14% of imports.
  • According to sources, a staggering 70% of electronic components, 45% of consumer durables, 70% of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), and 40% of leather goods come from China.
  • Products such as fertilizers are 76% cheaper, electronic circuits 23%, and data processing units around 10% cheaper if made in China.

UNSC ISSUE

  • China has repeatedly blocked India’s permanent membership of UNSC. It has also supported and blocked at the United Nations Security Council to designate Lashkar-e-Taiba and other Pakistan-based operatives as international terrorists.
  • China believes that granting India a permanent seat at the UNSC will lead to Indian interests being of paramount importance in the geopolitics of the subcontinent,

SIMILAR CULTURE

  • Both India and China same similar culture as being part of Asian civilisation. Also, both countries got the independence at the almost same time and share the colonial impact.
  • China and India share common thoughts on the future and destiny of mankind.
  • The Chinese people have cherished the vision of “a world of fairness and justice for the common good” since ancient times. Ancient Indian literature also records the motto of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam”.

BORDER ISSUES

  • Two countries share a long border that isn’t fully demarcated, and have overlapping territorial claims. India says it is 3,488km long; China puts it at around 2,000km.
  • India-China relations have gone through cycles of conflict and cooperation over nearly 75 years.  There have been several instances of conflict and tensions over the last few decades, including the 1962 Sino-Indian War and border clashes that occurred as recently as 2021 and continue to this day. For example, there is constant issue of Border in Arunachal Pradesh and Doklam.
  • Two sides should seize historical opportunities, complete the important process as soon as possible, and designate and develop the friendly relations between the two countries in legal form,

USE OF CHINA’S CURRENCY

  • Recent tussle over payment to Russia for oil in Chinese currency yuan amid Russia-Ukraine war has raised another concern in India-China relations.
  • India is seeking immediate alternative to reduce its dependence on China to continue trade relations with Russia.

THE CHALLENGES FOR INDIA

With Bhutan’s normalisation of diplomatic relations with China, India will face a new set of challenges.  Some of which are mentioned below:

SECURITY CHALLENGES

  • Considering growing relation between China and Bhutan and both moving towards border demarcation can have security challenges for India because of the strategic location of Bhutan.
  • One of the important area involves of Doklam which overlook India’s “Siliguri corridor”, if Bhutan and China consider a “swap” between territories in the valleys of the north and on the Doklam plateau in the west.
  • It will have huge security implications for India as the Doklam trijunction cuts very close to India’s Siliguri corridor a narrow area that connects the North Eastern States to the rest of India.

DIPLOMATIC CHALLENGES

  • By establishing diplomatic relations with China, Bhutan will be the latest and the last South Asian country to enter the competitive India-China dynamic.
  • And China has already hinted at new areas of economic, cultural, and people-to-people cooperation following the establishment of diplomatic relations with Bhutan.
  • This shows that an emerging new phase of relations will also call for fresh redlines between India and Bhutan. If Bhutan establishes formal diplomatic relations with China, it could affect its traditional pro-India foreign policy and challenge India’s influence in the region.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

  • Bhutan and India have a strong economic partnership, mainly based on hydropower cooperation. India is Bhutan’s largest trading partner and the biggest source of foreign direct investment, aid and loans.
  • India also imports most of Bhutan’s surplus electricity, which accounts for about 40% of Bhutan’s revenue. If Bhutan diversifies its economic ties with China, it could reduce its dependence on India and affect India’s economic interest.

INFRASTRUCTURE AND CONNECTIVITY

  • Bhutan’s participation in China’s Belt and Road Initiative might have implications for regional infrastructure development and connectivity.
  • India has concerns over the BRI’s strategic and security implications as it can hurt India’s security and sovereign interest.

INFLUENCE IN REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

  • Bhutan’s alignment with China could impact India’s influence in regional organizations like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC).

 THE WAY FORWARD

  • India’s stand: India should strive to understand Bhutan’s reasoning and motivations in its dealings with China. India should respect Bhutan’s sovereignty in dealing with any other countries until it is not harming India’s interests. India must also not allow hyper-nationalism and its antagonism with China to pressure Bhutan. India’s time-tested ties with Bhutan have always anticipated each other’s interests before taking any step that could affect their long-cherished partnership.
  • Diplomacy and dialogue: India should continue diplomatic engagement with Bhutan with an open and transparent communication to maintain trust that has been built over the years. This collaborative approach will strengthen the long-standing friendship between the two nations.
  • India’s foreign policy: The new phase of cordial diplomatic relations between Bhutan and China calls for the establishment of fresh relations between India and Bhutan.
  • Resolving border disputes: India should work closely with Bhutan and China on border negotiations. There should be a mutually acceptable border deal that addresses all three countries interests for a win-win situation.
  • Use of multilateral forums: India and China are both members of BRICS, SCO, WTO etc, which reflect common agenda for growth and development.  There is a need to use these forums to resolve each other’s differences with efficient dialogue.
  • People to People: There is a need to build people-to-people relationships with Bhutan as the younger Bhutanese are conscious of the importance of the Indian relationship. Bhutan-India relationship has survived mainly because it was built on mutual trust, which means Bhutan has equally driven the relationship. This needs to be continued by reaching out to younger generations.

THE CONCLUSION: The recent visit of Bhutan minister to China underscores increasing signs of normalisation of relations between the two countries. India must approach the boundary negotiations with a greater understanding of Bhutan’s reasoning, and with confidence that India’s long-trusted neighbour will take both India’s interests and its own into consideration before any final agreement.

MAINS QUESTIONS

Q.1 In the context of emerging normalisation of relation between Bhutan and China, India-Bhutan-China relation is set to face another challenge in the new world order. Comment.

Q.2 What are the potential implications of Bhutan-China relationship on the India-Bhutan relations? What steps India should take to balance the relation while prioritizing security, economic diversification, and regional diplomacy?




TOPIC- FACING ETHICAL DILEMMA: PUBLIC SAFETY VS INDIVIDUAL PRIVACY

The Context: Facial recognition technology (FRT) is rapidly developing and gaining widespread use in recent years. Its ability to identify individuals has been used in various fields, from law enforcement (Policing in Jaipur) and security (DigiYatra App at the airports) to marketing and social media. While the technology has the potential to revolutionize these fields, there are also concerns about its impact on privacy and human rights. This article analyses the ethical dilemmas involved from the UPSC perspective.

Mass surveillance: Mass surveillance refers to the widespread or large-scale spying or monitoring of vast groups of people, often carried out by governmental agencies, but also by corporations, especially in the context of collecting and storing large amounts of personal data. This surveillance can be executed through various means, including but not limited to:

  • CCTV Cameras: Positioned in public areas to monitor movements and activities. These can be used in public spaces such as restaurants, metro rails, music festival or protest gatherings etc.
  • Digital Communication Monitoring: Intercepting emails, text messages, and other forms of digital communication; for instance, Internet Surveillance (Tracking online activities, including browsing habits, search histories, and social media interactions), phone tapping etc.
  • Drones and Aerial Surveillance: Using drones to monitor areas and track movements from the air.
  • Biometric Surveillance: Using facial recognition, fingerprinting, and other biometric techniques to identify individuals.

SURVEILLANCE STATE AND ORWELLIAN STATE

A surveillance state refers to a government that engages in extensive monitoring of its citizens. In such a system, authorities use technology, laws, and other mechanisms to keep track of the activities, communications, and movements of individuals, often in the name of national security or public order. The surveillance might involve CCTV cameras, phone tapping, internet activity tracking, etc.

While surveillance states justify these actions as necessary for crime prevention and national defense, critics argue that they infringe upon individual privacy rights, curb freedoms, and can lead to an environment where citizens feel constantly watched and controlled.

An “Orwellian state” is derived from George Orwell’s dystopian novel “1984,” depicting a totalitarian regime characterized by pervasive governmental surveillance, public manipulation, and oppression. In such a society, the government exercises control over every facet of public and private life.

Citizens are constantly monitored, history is rewritten to suit the state’s narrative, and independent thought is suppressed and deemed criminal.

This term, in modern discourse, is used to describe any state action reminiscent of the novel’s oppressive practices, particularly those involving surveillance, misinformation, and suppression of dissent.

A “surveillance state” and an “Orwellian state” share overlapping features, but they are not synonymous. A surveillance state primarily refers to a government or regime that engages in extensive monitoring and data collection of its citizens. The motives can vary from ensuring national security to maintaining political power, or both. While an Orwellian state, on the other hand, is broader in its oppressive measures. Though pervasive surveillance is a key feature, an Orwellian regime also encompasses information and history manipulation suppression of dissent and independent thought propaganda dissemination to control and shape public perception.

INSTANCES WHICH MADE THE WORLD AWARE OF THE MASS SURVEILLANCE IN PRESENT TIMES

In 2013, computer expert and former CIA systems administrator, Edward Snowden released confidential government documents to the press about the existence of government surveillance programs. Snowden argued that he had a moral obligation to act. He gave a justification for his whistle blowing by stating that he had a duty to inform the public.

Since then the society as well as the technology has evolved and the potential use/misuse of the technology have become more concerning.

1. In the USA, the primary concern around facial recognition technology is the infringement on individual privacy. While there are legitimate uses for the technology, such as in locating missing persons or identifying suspects in criminal cases, critics argue that its widespread use can turn public spaces into zones of constant surveillance. There is also the issue of racial bias; studies have shown that some facial recognition systems misidentify people of color at higher rates than white individuals, leading to fears of racial profiling, wrongful arrest and other such ills.

2. In China, facial recognition technology is ubiquitous and considered a norm in society. Cameras are placed in public places, schools, and even residential areas, with the stated aim of maintaining public safety. However, this widespread deployment has serious ethical implications concerning privacy and state control.

      There is little public debate on its ethical use, largely because dissent is not well-tolerated. In regions like Xinjiang, there are reports that facial recognition technology has been used as part of a broader state surveillance apparatus to monitor and control the Uighur Muslim minority, raising human rights concerns.

3. The United Kingdom has one of the highest numbers of surveillance cameras per capita in the world. While there are regulations governing their use, including a “Data Protection Act”, concerns about public surveillance remain. Police in London and Wales have conducted trials using facial recognition cameras in public spaces to identify individuals wanted for serious crimes.

RECENT INSTANCES IN INDIA GIVING RISE TO APPREHENSIONS

1. Most recently in September 2023, the Jaipur city police have adopted Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology to monitor potential miscreants.

2. Manipur Chief Minister launched facial recognition system for Inner Line Permits in May 2023.

3. In December 2022, the government launched the app ‘DigiYatra’ which envisages that travelers pass through various checkpoints at the airport through paperless and contactless processing, using facial features to establish their identity.

4. In March 2020, the union Home Minister, Amit Shah, told the Rajya Sabha that the Delhi Police had used facial-recognition technology to identify nearly two thousand individuals as instigators of violence in the aftermath of Delhi riots. Interestingly even as there is no legal framework to regulate the use of the tool in the country, the infrastructure is already in place.

5. In 2021, the Pegasus Project, an international investigative journalism effort, revealed that various governments used the software to spy on government officials, opposition politicians, journalists, activists and many others. Such spywares not only infringes the individual rights but also raises the concerns of the legitimacy of the government of the day.

6. In Telangana, there are numerous facial recognition datasets that are being integrated into a “smart governance program,” called Samagram, which gives the state government a full picture of every resident’s life, including their employment status and other personal information. The goal isn’t only to track down criminals, but to build up a ‘360 degree view’ of every single person. This goes against the individual privacy.

PRIMARY ARGUMENTS FOR BOTH THE SIDES

In Favor of Individual Privacy

  • Right to Privacy is considered a fundamental human right in many societies and is often enshrined in constitutions and human rights declarations. It’s integral to personal liberty and dignity.
  • Potential for Abuse: Concentrating surveillance powers can lead to misuse. History is replete with examples where governments abused their surveillance capabilities to suppress dissent, control populations, or persecute minorities.
  • Chilling Effect: Widespread surveillance can deter people from expressing themselves freely, associating with others, or participating in political activities, leading to a stifled society.
  • Data Security Concerns: Accumulating vast amounts of personal data poses a risk if there are breaches, potentially exposing individuals to harm.

In Favor of Public Safety

  • Protecting the public interest: The primary role of the state is to protect its citizens. If surveillance or data collection can prevent terror attacks, reduce crime, or generally ensure public safety, it might be deemed a necessary compromise.
  • Changing Nature of Threats: The global rise in terrorism, cyber threats, and sophisticated crime networks necessitates advanced surveillance and data collection to protect nations and their citizens.
  • Consent and Social Contracts: By being part of a society and enjoying its benefits, individuals implicitly agree to certain compromises on personal freedoms for the greater good.
  • Transparency and Oversight: Proponents argue that as long as there’s rigorous oversight, judicial checks, and transparency in surveillance operations, the rights of citizens remain protected.
  • Technological Evolution: As technology becomes an integral part of life, there’s an inherent reduction in privacy. Public spaces, online platforms, and commercial entities all engage in some form of data collection, making state-led efforts not significantly different.

Thinkers Perspective:

The debate between individual privacy and public safety has been a central theme in democracies around the world, especially with the rise of digital technologies and counter-terrorism measures. Though the tug-of-war between individual privacy and public safety isn’t new; it’s been a subject of contemplation for many political thinkers throughout history.

Kautilya’s views were deeply rooted in the welfare of the state and its people, and his thoughts can provide insights into the balancing act between individual rights and public safety. For Kautilya, the state’s stability and security were paramount. He believed that an orderly and prosperous state would naturally ensure the well-being of its people. While Kautilya did not discuss “individual rights” in the manner of contemporary Western philosophy, his focus on state welfare, rule of law, and individual duties indirectly touched upon the balance between public safety and individual well-being.

Thomas Hobbes, in his work “Leviathan,” opined that individuals cede some rights to a central authority (or a ‘sovereign’) to gain protection and maintain social order, which can be construed as an endorsement of state surveillance for safety.

On the other hand, John Locke, the 17th-century philosopher, argued that individuals have natural rights, like the right to “life, liberty, and property.” He contended that governments are formed to protect these rights, suggesting a boundary to governmental intrusion.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his writings hint at concepts related to individual freedom. Rousseau emphasized the “state of nature” where individuals were free and independent, suggesting a form of inherent personal autonomy and space. In his “Social Contract”, while he advocated for the collective “general will” as a guiding principle of governance, he also delineated the transition from natural freedom to civil freedom, emphasizing the sanctity of individual rights within a societal framework. Thus, Rousseau’s ideas indirectly promote the importance of personal space and autonomy, concepts intrinsic to contemporary notions of individual privacy.

John Stuart Mill’s “On Liberty” staunchly champions individual freedom. Central to his argument is the “harm principle,” positing that one’s liberty should only be restricted to prevent harm to others. Mill asserted that absolute freedom of thought and expression is vital for intellectual and societal advancement, even seeing value in false opinions as they sharpen the truth through refutation. He warned against the “tyranny of the majority,” wherein societal norms could oppress individual’s as much as governmental laws. For Mill, individual autonomy was essential, not just as a right, but as a pathway to personal development and societal progress.

The Analysis:

In present times the tension between individual privacy and public safety is a pivotal debate in modern democracies. Many argue that unchecked surveillance can deter free expression and association, leading to a society where individuals constantly self-censor. There’s also the looming danger of state misuse of surveillance capabilities, historically evidenced by regimes that suppressed dissent or targeted minorities. Furthermore, the technological accumulation of personal data heightens risks of data breaches and misidentifications.

On the other side, proponents of public safety argue that the state’s primary responsibility is to protect its citizens. In a world grappling with global terrorism, cyber threats, and intricate crime networks, enhanced surveillance and data collection become indispensable tools. They contend that with robust oversight, transparency, and legal checks, it is difficult to ensure public safety without trampling on individual rights.

In this debate, balancing Locke’s emphasis on individual rights with Hobbes’s stress on collective security gives rise to ethical dilemmas, even more so in our technologically advanced age. A balanced approach requires ongoing dialogue, transparent governance, and a commitment to upholding democratic values.

The Way Forward:

  • Public surveillance undoubtedly entails substantial human rights risks and can substantially undermine the right to privacy. It is thus essential that States resorting to the use of public surveillance assess the potential human rights impacts of their actions and strictly ensure compliance with international human rights law.
  • Despite the far-reaching impacts of the various forms of public surveillance, adequate applicable legal frameworks are largely missing in many countries. Data protection laws are often missing, inadequate or make broad exceptions for law enforcement and intelligence services. Laws and regulations need to have clearly determined and strict limitations on the access and merging of government databases.
  • General monitoring of people in public spaces is almost invariably disproportionate. Surveillance measures in public spaces should be targeted and should address a concrete legitimate aim.
  • The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), implemented by the European Union in 2018, stands as a landmark legislation prioritizing individual privacy in the digital age. The state should have legitimate concerns to subject the citizens under surveillance for the larger good.
  • In the Puttaswamy Case (2017) while holding that the right to privacy is not absolute in nature, the judgment also gave the three-fold requirement of limiting the privacy. These shall be strictly adhered to by the state until the concrete law is enacted to regulate the use of surveillance tools for public safety in the country. These are:
    • legality, which postulates the existence of law;
    • need, defined in terms of a legitimate state aim; and
    • proportionality which ensures a rational nexus between the objects and the means adopted to achieve them.
  • In the Manohar Lal Sharma vs Union of India (2021) (Pegasus case), the Supreme Court set up a committee of experts to recommend amendments to the existing law around surveillance to secure the right to privacy. The need to regulate surveillance activities, especially in light of privacy concerns, backed by a judicial push in India should be a wakeup call for the government.
  • The DPDP Act 2023 is a welcome step where personal data may be processed only for a lawful purpose upon consent of an individual.  Consent may not be required for specified legitimate uses such as voluntary sharing of data by the individual or processing by the State for permits, licenses, benefits, and services. It is for the government to secure such data from the thefts and unauthorized usages.

The Conclusion: As a country that is home to the largest democracy, our duty to empower our citizens towards their rights is as important as our duty to preserve national security. National security and privacy have largely been viewed as competing interests over the years; however, with the advent of technology and means of digital surveillance, protecting citizens’ information is also important. It is perhaps the best time to resolve the ethical dilemma and begin to view ‘protecting the privacy and information of citizen’s’ as a facet of ‘preserving national security’.

Mains Practice Questions:

Q.1 National security is important but it should not compromise the privacy of the individuals. Analyze in the context of the ethical dilemma between national security and the right to privacy.

Q.2 The current state of surveillance reform in India is on an uneven keel between national security and privacy. Comment.

Q.3 The recent technological developments have changed the surveillance architecture, where the tools have become more intrusive and damaging to our democratic safeguards. Discuss.