TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Tropical cyclones, characterized by strong winds, heavy precipitation, and storm surges, pose significant threats to coastal communities and infrastructure. The intensification of these storms, fueled by global warming, has led to the emergence of cyclones with wind speeds surpassing the existing Category 5 threshold.

EXPLANATION:

• This necessitates the consideration of a new category, Category 6, on the Saffir-Simpson (SS) hurricane wind scale.

Tropical Cyclones:

• Tropical cyclones form over warm tropical ocean basins with sea surface temperatures exceeding 26.5°C.
• They are prevalent in regions such as the North Atlantic, East Pacific, West Pacific, South Pacific, and the Indian Ocean.
• The Western Pacific basin is particularly active, accounting for a significant portion of global tropical cyclones.
• However, the North Indian basin, while contributing a smaller share, remains highly vulnerable to cyclone impacts.

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

• It was introduced in the early 1970s.
• The SS hurricane wind scale categorizes cyclones based on maximum sustained wind speeds at a height of 10 meters.
• Categories range from 1 to 5, with Category 5 representing wind speeds exceeding 252 km/hour.
• Factors like storm surge and rainfall contribute to cyclone-related damage.
• Wind speed remains a crucial metric for assessing risk and impact.

Impact of Global Warming

• Man-made greenhouse gas emissions have led to a warming of approximately 1.10°C since pre-industrial times.
• This warming trend extends to ocean depths, increasing the heat content of oceans and favoring cyclone intensification.
• Long-term data indicate a rise in the frequency of intense tropical cyclones, with each degree of warming corresponding to a 12% increase in wind speed and a 40% increase in destructive potential.

Emergence of Category 6 Cyclones

• Recent research suggests that cyclones exceeding Category 5 intensity are becoming more frequent, with record wind speeds expected to continue rising.
• Observations reveal that half of the Category 5 cyclones occurred in the last 17 years, with several storms surpassing the hypothetical Category 6 threshold.
• Climate simulations predict a further increase in the annual exceedance of Category 6 thresholds, especially in regions prone to intense cyclones.
• Given the escalation of cyclone intensity due to global warming, there is a compelling case for introducing Category 6 on the SS hurricane wind scale.
• This additional category would raise awareness of the heightened risks posed by large cyclones and underscore the urgency of addressing climate change.

Implications for Vulnerable Regions

• While the North Indian Ocean currently experiences fewer Category 6 storms, ongoing climate change suggests a heightened risk in the future.
• Revisiting disaster management strategies and early warning systems is imperative to mitigate the potential impacts on lives and infrastructure in vulnerable regions.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/increasing-tropical-cyclones-of-higher-intensity-necessitates-a-new-category/article68006554.ece

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: The recent conflict between the Kerala government and Governor Arif Mohammed Khan over the withholding of assent to several Bills has brought to light an ongoing issue in Indian governance.

EXPLANATION:

• This conflict echoes similar disputes in states like Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Telangana, where Governors appointed by the President, often from the ruling party at the center, clash with state governments led by opposition parties.

Governor’s Role in Lawmaking

• Article 200 of the Indian Constitution delineates the Governor’s authority in the legislative process.
• Upon the passage of a Bill by the state legislature, the Governor is presented with three options:
  • to provide assent,
  • withhold assent, or
  • reserve the Bill for the President’s consideration.
• However, the absence of a specific timeline for decision-making has led to Governors withholding assent for prolonged periods, leaving Bills and legislative processes in limbo.

President’s Role in Lawmaking

• When a Bill is referred to the President for consideration, Article 201 outlines the President’s authority.
• The President can either grant or withhold assent.
• If assent is withheld, the Bill is returned to the state legislature for reconsideration within the stipulated period.
• Failure to act within this period results in the Bill lapsing.
• Unlike the Governor, the President is not obligated to grant assent upon reconsideration.

Kerala’s Legal Challenge

• The Kerala government has approached the Supreme Court, alleging arbitrary actions by Governor and President.
• The government contends that the prolonged withholding of assent violates Article 200, thereby undermining the state legislature’s functioning.
• Additionally, the lack of reasons provided by President for withholding assent to certain Bills is seen as a violation of Article 201.

Similar Cases in Other States

• Instances of Governors withholding assent have been observed in other states as well.
• In Tamil Nadu, Governor refusal to assent to multiple Bills led to criticism and legal challenges.
• Similarly, Telangana faced a similar situation when the Governor withheld assent to Bills passed by the legislative assembly.
• Despite legal pressure, no definitive timeline for decision-making by Governors has been established by the Supreme Court.

Judicial Interpretation

• In a significant ruling in November 2023, the Supreme Court addressed the issue of Governors withholding assent.
• The court emphasized that Governors cannot indefinitely delay the legislative process and must adhere to the provisions outlined in Article 200.
• However, the court refrained from setting a specific timeline for decision-making, prompting the Kerala government to seek further clarification on this matter.

Constitutional Provisions and The Governor’s Power:

• ARTICLE 200 – ASSENT TO BILLS
  • According to Article 200, when a Bill passed by the Legislature of a State is presented to the Governor, he has four options available to him; giving assent, withholding assent, reserving the Bill for the consideration of the President or returning the bill to the state assembly for reconsideration.
• ARTICLE: 201- BILLS RESERVED FOR CONSIDERATION
  • The Indian Constitution deals with provisions related to bills reserved for the consideration of the President.
  • When a Governor reserves a Bill for the consideration of the President, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill or that he withholds assent.
  • The President may also direct the Governor to return the Bill, where the Bill is not a Money Bill, with a message. When a Bill is so returned, the House or Houses shall reconsider it accordingly within a period of six months from the date of receipt of such message and, if the House or Houses again pass it with or without amendment, it shall be presented again to the President.
  • There is no timeframe mentioned for the above provisions.
• VETO POWER OF THE GOVERNOR WITH RESPECT TO BILLS
  • The Governor of India enjoys absolute veto, suspensive veto (except on money bills) and the pocket veto.
  • Absolute Veto: It refers to the power of withholding his assent to a bill passed by the state legislature. The bill then ends and does not become an act.
  • Suspensive Veto: The Governor returns the bill to the state legislature for its reconsideration.
  • Pocket Veto: The constitution of India does not provide a time frame for the Governor and the Bill may be kept pending.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-law/governors-assent-to-state-laws-9239214/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Chavakkad Beach in Thrissur, Kerala, has long been a vital nesting ground for Olive Ridley turtles. However, recent observations reveal a significant decline in turtle footfall at the beach, raising concerns among conservationists and local communities.

EXPLANATION:

• Olive Ridley turtles, classified as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List and protected under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, play a crucial role in marine ecosystems.
• Their nesting habits contribute to biodiversity and ecosystem health, making their conservation imperative.
• Conservationists attribute the decline in turtle arrivals at Chavakkad Beach to the rising temperature.
• The increased temperature disrupts the turtles’ nesting patterns, affecting their migratory behavior and reducing their propensity to lay eggs on the shore.
• Historically, around 500 Olive Ridley turtles would arrive annually at Chavakkad Beach to lay eggs.
• However, recent reports indicate that only one-third of this usual number made an appearance, signaling a noticeable decline in turtle footfall.
• The delayed onset of the winter season exacerbates the situation, as turtles typically begin their nesting season in November when temperatures along the coast drop.
• The delayed winter may have disrupted the turtles’ migratory cues, leading to reduced nesting activity.

Community Conservation Efforts:

• Local communities, including fishermen, youngsters, and schoolchildren, have long been involved in turtle conservation efforts around Chavakkad Beach.
• Their initiatives have contributed to an increase in hatchling numbers entering the sea, highlighting the importance of community engagement in conservation.

Nesting Season and Success Rates:

• The nesting season for Olive Ridley turtles spans from November to February, during which a single turtle can lay approximately 120 eggs.
• These eggs typically take 45-60 days to hatch, with an impressive 80% hatch success rate observed at Chavakkad Beach in the past.

Significance of the Decline:

• The decline in turtle footfall at Chavakkad Beach represents the first such occurrence in a decade, underscoring the urgency of addressing environmental factors contributing to the turtles’ altered behavior.
• Understanding the drivers behind this decline is crucial for formulating effective conservation strategies.

Olive Ridley turtles:

• The Olive ridley turtles are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world.
• They are found to be inhabiting the warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.
• They are carnivores and feed mainly on jellyfish, shrimp, snails, crabs, molluscs, and a variety of fish and their eggs.
• The males and females grow to the same size.
• These turtles, along with their cousin the Kemps ridley turtle, are best known for their unique mass nesting called Arribada, where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs.
• The coast of Orissa in India is the largest mass nesting site for the Olive-ridley, followed by the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
• The species is recognized as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red list.
• They lie in Scheduled 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
• They are in Appendix I of the CITES.

SOURCE: https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2024/Mar/29/kochi-as-temp-soars-olive-ridley-turtles-elude-chavakkad-beach

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Recent studies have highlighted how the melting polar ice is affecting Earth’s rotation and potentially influencing our timekeeping systems.

EXPLANATION:

• This phenomenon, driven by global warming, has significant implications for various aspects of our lives and requires careful consideration.
• The melting of polar ice due to rising temperatures redistributes the Earth’s mass, particularly around the equator.
• This redistribution alters the planet’s angular velocity, leading to changes in its rotation speed.
• As a result, Earth’s rotation is slowing down, albeit marginally.
• A study published in Nature, led by geophysicist from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, highlights this phenomenon.
• The research suggests that as polar ice melts, the increased mass around the equator affects Earth’s rotation speed, necessitating potential adjustments to our timekeeping systems.

Potential Timekeeping Implications:

• The slowing of Earth’s rotation could prompt world timekeepers to consider subtracting a second from our clocks in the future.
• This adjustment, referred to as a “negative leap second,” may be necessary by 2029, according to the study.
• Such changes could have repercussions for various systems reliant on precise timekeeping, particularly in the realm of computer networks.
• A professor of geophysics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) emphasizes the significance of the polar ice melt in altering Earth’s rotation.
• The melted water from polar regions flows towards the equator, contributing to changes in the planet’s mass distribution and rotational dynamics.

Long-Term Perspective:

• While the current changes in Earth’s rotation are notable, it’s essential to contextualize them within a broader temporal framework.
• Earth’s rotation has undergone variations over millions of years, with days being shorter in the distant past.
• Understanding these long-term trends provides valuable insights into the dynamic nature of our planet’s rotation.

Negative leap second:

• A negative leap second is a second that is subtracted from our clocks to keep them in sync with the Earth’s rotation.
• It is the opposite of a positive leap second, which is a one-second addition to our clocks.
• The need for a negative leap second arises when the Earth’s rotation speeds up, causing a discrepancy with our clocks.
• This adjustment is crucial to maintain the accuracy of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and ensure that our timekeeping systems remain aligned with the Earth’s rotation.

Rotation of the earth:

• Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.
• It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete on rotation.
• Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal i.e. it makes an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane. Orbital plane is the plane of earth’s orbit around the Sun.

Polar regions:

• Polar regions refer to the areas surrounding the Earth’s geographic poles, namely the North Pole and the South Pole.
• These regions are characterized by extreme cold temperatures, unique ecosystems, and distinct geological features.
• Geography and Climate:
  • North Pole:
    • The North Pole, located in the Arctic Ocean, is surrounded by several landmasses, including parts of Canada, Greenland, Russia, and Scandinavia.
    • The Arctic region experiences long, harsh winters with temperatures plummeting well below freezing, while summers are relatively short and cool.
    • Sea ice covers much of the Arctic Ocean, although this ice undergoes seasonal variations, with significant melting occurring during the summer months.
  • South Pole:
    • The South Pole is situated in Antarctica, which is a continent covered by a thick ice sheet. It is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
    • Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth, with temperatures dropping as low as -80°C (-112°F) during the winter months.
    • The continent experiences long periods of darkness during the Antarctic winter and extended daylight during the summer, due to its location within the polar circle.

SOURCE: https://www.ndtv.com/science/melting-polar-ice-changing-earths-rotation-and-messing-with-time-study-5325413

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Great Indian Bustard (GIB), a critically endangered species, faces multiple threats to its survival, primarily stemming from human activities.

EXPLANATION:

• The recent focus on power lines and their impact on GIB habitats has brought to light the complex interplay between conservation efforts and infrastructure development.
• The primary threat to the GIB stems from overhead power lines that crisscross its habitat in the Kutch and Thar deserts of western India.
• These power lines pose a significant risk to the birds, particularly due to their large size and limited frontal vision, making them vulnerable to collisions.
• Studies indicate that power lines result in substantial bird mortality, with an estimated 84,000 bird deaths annually in the GIB habitat alone.
• The GIB’s inability to detect power lines from a distance and maneuver around them exacerbates the threat, leading to collisions and fatalities.

Court Orders and Government Response:

• The Supreme Court’s order to bury underground all power lines in GIB habitats reflects the urgency of addressing this threat.
• However, the Centre has argued that implementing such measures is impractical and financially burdensome, citing constraints such as transmission losses, maintenance challenges, and safety concerns.

Feasibility and Cost Considerations:

• The Centre contends that burying power lines, especially those of 66 KV and higher voltage, is not feasible for bulk power evacuation due to technical limitations and exorbitant costs.
• The estimated expenses run into thousands of crores, posing a significant challenge to implementation.
• While the court has proposed burying power lines as a solution, the Centre has highlighted the use of bird diverters as a more cost-effective alternative.
• However, concerns remain regarding the effectiveness of diverters in preventing bird collisions, especially for large birds like the GIB.

Other Threats to GIB:

• Power lines are not the sole threat to the GIB.
• The proliferation of free-ranging dogs, hunting, pesticide use, and habitat loss pose additional challenges to the bird’s survival.
• These multifaceted threats require comprehensive conservation strategies beyond addressing power line collisions.

Conservation Efforts:

• The government has initiated various conservation initiatives, including captive breeding and habitat restoration, to protect the GIB.
• However, the success of these efforts hinges on mitigating infrastructure-related threats and securing safe habitats for the bird’s population to thrive.

Balancing Development and Conservation:

• The debate surrounding power lines underscores the need to balance development goals with wildlife conservation objectives.
• While renewable energy projects hold promise for sustainable development, they must be implemented responsibly to minimize their impact on endangered species like the GIB.

Great Indian Bustard:

• It is known as the Indian Bustard, is a majestically large bird found on the Indian subcontinent.
• It is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world, with males reaching up to 1.2 meters (4 feet) tall and weighing in at 15 kg (33 pounds).
• These birds are easily distinguished by their black crown contrasting with their pale neck and head, and their brownish body with black, brown, and grey markings on their wings.
• The Great Indian Bustard is classified as critically endangered. Once common on the dry plains of India, there are only an estimated 150 individuals left in the wild.
• There are two main threats to their existence: habitat loss and hunting.
• Their natural habitat consists of large expanses of dry grasslands and scrub. However, this habitat is being lost due to agricultural development, overgrazing, and the planting of trees. Great Indian Bustards are hunted for their meat and feathers.
• The great Indian bustard was distributed throughout Western India, spanning 11 states, as well as parts of Pakistan. Its stronghold was once the Thar desert in the north-west and the Deccan plateau of the peninsula. Today, its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/great-indian-bustard-threats-conservation-power-9240502/

TAG: GS 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

THE CONTEXT: Russia’s recent veto on the renewal of a panel of experts monitoring UN sanctions against North Korea has sparked controversy and highlighted geopolitical tensions.

EXPLANATION:

• The move signifies a significant shift in global dynamics, particularly amidst ongoing conflicts such as the war in Ukraine.
• Russia has accused the United States and its allies of escalating military tensions in Asia and attempting to “strangle” North Korea through stringent sanctions.
• This assertion underscores Russia’s belief that the current approach to North Korea is outdated and ineffective.

Strategic Alliance Between Russia and North Korea:

• The veto highlights the burgeoning relationship between Russia and North Korea, particularly amid the Ukraine
• Putin’s courtship of Kim Jong Un allows Russia to assert its influence in the region while securing resources for the Ukraine war.
• Conversely, North Korea sees Russia as a powerful ally with access to advanced military technology.

Critique of UN Sanctions and Expert Panel:

• Russia criticizes the UN expert panel, arguing that it lacks objectivity and impartiality, instead serving as a tool for Western geopolitical interests.
• This critique suggests a broader skepticism towards the efficacy of UN sanctions in addressing North Korea’s nuclear program.

Impact of Ukraine Conflict on Global Cooperation:

• The Ukraine conflict has strained relations between Russia and the West, leading to a breakdown in cooperation on global issues.
• The veto on North Korea sanctions exemplifies how the Ukraine crisis has undermined collaborative efforts among major powers.

Call for Diplomacy and Compromise:

• Despite its veto, Russia calls for a reevaluation of sanctions policies and a shift towards diplomatic solutions.
• However, Russia’s proposals for compromise, such as time-limited sanctions reviews, have faced opposition from Washington.

Veto Power:

• The United Nations Security Council has five members who serve on a rotating basis (UNSC).
• Different political parties in India are divided on the issue.
• Political parties have utilized this status to exert veto power since independence.
• The United Nations Security Council’s five permanent members can veto or reject any substantive resolution.
• A member’s abstaining vote does not influence whether or not the resolution is accepted. Procedural votes do not affect the veto authority.
• The Security Council’s five permanent fellows have veto power. The following are examples:

1. China

2. France

3. Russia

4. Great Britain

5. The United States.

SOURCE: https://theprint.in/world/after-veto-russia-says-big-powers-need-to-stop-strangling-north-korea/2020055/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The global push for nuclear energy as a climate solution has gained momentum in recent years, with advocates highlighting its potential to address challenges related to climate change and energy security.

EXPLANATION:

• Despite significant advantages, such as minimal carbon footprint and perennial availability, nuclear energy faces hurdles that impede its widespread adoption.
• We will look into the factors driving the push for nuclear energy, challenges hindering its uptake, and India’s stance on nuclear power expansion.

 Global nuclear energy generation capacity in GW.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy:

• Nuclear energy is lauded for its minimal carbon footprint, making it a viable alternative to fossil fuels for electricity generation.
• The entire life cycle of nuclear power results in negligible emissions, significantly lower than coal-fired electricity and comparable to renewable sources like solar and wind.
• Perennial availability distinguishes nuclear energy as suitable for baseload electricity generation, offering stability that intermittent renewables may lack.
• Recognized by the IPCC, nuclear energy plays a crucial role in decarbonization pathways, contributing to substantial greenhouse gas emissions avoidance.

Challenges to Nuclear Energy Uptake:

• Safety concerns, exacerbated by events like the Fukushima accident, contribute to apprehensions surrounding nuclear energy adoption.
• High capital investments, prolonged construction timelines, and stringent regulations deter countries from pursuing nuclear power projects.
• Limited technological advancements in nuclear sector compared to renewables hinder cost reductions and scalability.
• Despite its potential, nuclear energy constitutes less than 10% of global electricity generation, with operational reactor numbers declining in recent years.

Global Push and Recent Initiatives:

• Efforts by global nuclear advocates, including the IAEA, aim to garner greater acceptance and support for nuclear energy.
• The IAEA’s ‘Atoms4Climate’ initiative and engagement with climate conferences highlight nuclear energy’s role in clean energy transition.
• The Nuclear Energy Summit in Brussels underscores international collaboration to promote nuclear energy as a solution to climate challenges.
• Despite challenges, nuclear energy remains integral to achieving net-zero emissions and addressing the climate emergency.

India’s Position on Nuclear Energy:

• India acknowledges the role of nuclear energy in its decarbonization strategy, aiming for rapid expansion in the coming years.
• The country plans to triple its nuclear power capacity by 2031-32, although its share in total electricity generation is expected to remain modest.
• India’s participation in global nuclear initiatives, such as the Brussels Summit, demonstrates its commitment to nuclear energy as a clean and reliable electricity source.
• Former officials advocate for accelerated growth of India’s nuclear sector, emphasizing its importance in meeting future energy demands.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/nuclear-energy-climate-solution-problems-india-9237794/

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: The World Health Organization (WHO) has initiated a significant global effort named CoViNet, aimed at monitoring and identifying potentially novel coronaviruses.

EXPLANATION:

• This initiative builds upon the foundation laid by the COVID-19 reference laboratory network established during the early stages of the pandemic.
• CoViNet represents a proactive approach to tackle the ongoing and future threats posed by coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, and potential new variants.

CoViNet:

• CoViNet is a global laboratory network established by WHO to identify and monitor emerging coronaviruses.
• It expands the focus beyond SARS-CoV-2 to include other coronaviruses such as MERS-CoV, enhancing laboratory capacity worldwide.
• The network aims to provide timely detection, monitoring, and assessment of coronaviruses with public health significance.

Foundation and Collaboration:

• CoViNet builds upon the collaboration established through the WHO COVID-19 reference laboratory network, initiated in January 2020.
• The expansion of this network underscores the evolving nature of global health threats and the need for proactive surveillance and response mechanisms.

Objectives and Activities:

• CoViNet will incorporate animal health and environmental surveillance alongside laboratory-based monitoring.
• It will facilitate timely risk assessment to inform WHO policies and protective measures.
• Focus on supporting the building of additional laboratories in low- and middle-income countries to enhance surveillance capabilities.

Global Reach and Participation:

• CoViNet comprises 36 laboratories from 21 countries across all six WHO regions, including prominent Indian laboratories.
• Representatives from these laboratories convened in Geneva, Switzerland, to finalize an action plan for 2024-2025.
• The global participation underscores the collaborative efforts required to address emerging health threats on a worldwide scale.

Importance of Surveillance and Response:

• The initiative recognizes the recurrent epidemic and pandemic risks posed by coronaviruses.
• Enhanced surveillance and response mechanisms are crucial for early detection and containment of potential outbreaks.
• CoViNet aligns with WHO’s broader efforts to strengthen global health security and pandemic preparedness.

Implications for Future Pandemic Preparedness:

• The emergence of COVID-19 highlighted the need for proactive measures to address novel disease threats.
• WHO’s emphasis on monitoring novel coronaviruses reflects the recognition of ‘Disease X,’ an unknown disease anticipated to be of unprecedented magnitude.
• CoViNet’s activities, including virus sequencing and data analysis, will inform response strategies and vaccine development efforts.

World Health Organisation:

• The World Health Organization (WHO), established in 1948, is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
• It connects nations, partners and people to promote health, keep the world safe and serve the vulnerable – so everyone, everywhere can attain the highest level of health.
• Its headquarters are situated in Geneva, Switzerland.
• There are 194 Member States, 150 country offices, six regional offices.
• It began functioning on April 7, 1948 – a date now being celebrated every year as World Health Day.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/health/who-launches-covinet-a-global-laboratory-to-monitor-emerging-coronaviruses-95277

TAG: GS 3: INTERNAL SECURITY

THE CONTEXT: The extension of the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) in parts of Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh by the Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) for another six months has sparked discussions regarding security measures in these regions.

EXPLANATION:

• AFSPA, known for granting extensive powers to armed forces in disturbed areas, continues to be a controversial subject due to its implications on human rights and civil liberties.
• AFSPA empowers armed forces and Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF) in designated “disturbed areas.”
• Provides authority to take actions such as killing, arrest, and search without warrants.
• Grants immunity from prosecution without Central government sanction, leading to concerns about misuse of power.
• MHA extended AFSPA in specific districts and police stations of Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Eight districts and 21 police stations in Nagaland and three districts along with specific police stations in Arunachal Pradesh are covered.
• Notifications issued under Section 3 of AFSPA for a six-month period effective from April 1.

Purpose of Extension:

• Aimed at maintaining security and combating insurgency or other threats in the designated areas.
• Reflects ongoing concerns about the prevailing situation necessitating continued military presence and special powers.

Historical Context:

• AFSPA extensions are periodic and indicate the persistence of security challenges in these regions.
• Previous extensions suggest a recurring need for maintaining security measures despite efforts for peace and stability.

Impact on Civil Liberties:

• Raises concerns about potential violations of human rights and civil liberties due to the broad powers granted to armed forces.
• Critics argue that AFSPA undermines accountability and can lead to instances of excessive use of force and impunity.

Regional Dynamics:

• Nagaland and parts of Arunachal Pradesh have experienced insurgency and unrest in the past.
• Security concerns stemming from various insurgent groups or ethnic tensions contribute to the justification for AFSPA extension.

Public Discourse and Opposition:

• AFSPA extensions often face opposition from civil society organizations, human rights activists, and local communities.
• Calls for repeal or amendment of AFSPA highlight concerns about its impact on civilian populations and the need for alternative approaches to address security challenges.

The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958:

• The Act came into force in 1958 in the context of increasing violence in the Northeastern States, which the State governments found difficult to control.
• The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Bill was passed by both the Houses of Parliament, and it was approved by the President on September 11, 1958. It became known as the Armed Forces Special Powers Act, 1958.
• AFSPA gives armed forces the power to maintain public order in “disturbed areas”.
• Under the Act, armed forces have the authority to prohibit a gathering of five or more persons in an area, can use force or even open fire after giving due warning if they feel a person is in contravention of the law.
• If reasonable suspicion exists, the army can also arrest a person without a warrant; enter or search a premises without a warrant and ban the possession of firearms.
• Any person arrested or taken into custody may be handed over to the officer in charge of the nearest police station along with a report detailing the circumstances that led to the arrest.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-extends-afspa-in-three-districts-three-police-stations-of-arunachal-pradesh-for-six-months/article68001962.ece

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: In a recent judgment, the Supreme Court of India emphasized the crucial role of advisory boards in preventive detention cases.

EXPLANATION:

• The court highlighted the need for these boards to act as independent entities, safeguarding personal liberty from arbitrary state actions.
• This analysis delves into the key aspects of the judgment, emphasizing the significance of advisory boards and the parameters for justifiable preventive detention.

Advisory Boards as Safeguards:

• The Supreme Court rejected the notion of advisory boards as mere rubber stamps for the government.
• Emphasized their role as ‘safety valves’ against arbitrary state power, ensuring the protection of personal liberty.
• Highlighted the necessity for robust scrutiny of detention orders by qualified individuals, as mandated by Article 22 of the Constitution.

Scrutiny and Review Process:

• Advisory boards mandated to review detention orders every three months under preventive detention laws.
• Required to consider all relevant material, solicit additional information, and afford the detainee an opportunity to be heard.
• Emphasized the importance of submitting detailed reports justifying the necessity of detention.

Case Analysis: Telangana Prevention of Dangerous Activities Act (1986):

• The judgment stemmed from an appeal against detention under the Telangana Prevention of Dangerous Activities Act.
• The appellant was accused of threatening public order by engaging in criminal activities, specifically targeting women.
• The court scrutinized the grounds for detention, emphasizing the need for concrete evidence and not mere hypotheses.

Distinction between ‘Public Order’ and ‘Law and Order’:

• Justice Pardiwala delineated between the concepts of public order and law and order.
• Public order disturbances extend beyond individual incidents to impact the larger community or society.
• Emphasized that preventive detention should not substitute for the failure of regular law enforcement mechanisms.

Criteria for Justifiable Preventive Detention:

• Activities deemed prejudicial to public order must transcend the capacity of ordinary laws to address them effectively.
• Preventive detention should not be invoked solely due to the inability of law enforcement agencies to manage law and order situations.

Quashing of Detention Order:

• The Supreme Court quashed the detention order against the appellant.
• Found lack of concrete evidence linking the appellant to the alleged offenses, suggesting arbitrary detention based on suspicion.
• Upheld the principle of ‘innocent until proven guilty’ and the right to due process in preventive detention cases.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/advisory-boards-under-preventive-detention-laws-are-not-rubber-stamps-for-the-govt-says-sc/article68002452.ece

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: Intuitive Machines, a Houston-based company, embarked on a historic venture with its Odysseus mission, marking the first privately-led space mission to successfully land on the Moon on February 22. However, the mission has now reached its conclusion with the spacecraft’s official shutdown.

EXPLANATION:

• Odysseus operated on the lunar surface for a period of seven Earth days, in line with its designed mission duration.
• Following this, the spacecraft entered a power-saving standby mode as a result of the absence of sunlight during the lunar night.
• Engineers at Intuitive Machines had hoped for a revival of the lander once sunlight returned during lunar daybreak.
• However, their efforts to re-establish communication were unsuccessful, leading to the confirmation of the spacecraft’s permanent shutdown.

Significance of Odysseus Mission

• The Odysseus mission holds significant historical importance as it marks the first instance of a privately-led mission successfully landing on the Moon.
• This achievement underscores the growing role of private entities in space exploration.
• The mission was executed as part of NASA’s CLPS initiative, which aims to collaborate with private companies for the delivery of equipment and technology to the Moon.
• This partnership highlights NASA’s strategy of leveraging private sector capabilities to further its exploration goals.

Implications for Lunar Exploration

• Initiatives such as CLPS and the US Department of Defense’s Luna10 plan are aimed at fostering a “lunar economy” by harnessing the Moon’s unique location and resources.
• The success of missions like Odysseus contributes to laying the foundation for sustained human presence and economic activities on the Moon.
• The Moon’s proximity to Earth makes it an ideal staging point for missions to farther reaches of the solar system.
• By establishing infrastructure and capabilities on the Moon, humanity can facilitate deeper exploration of space, including missions to Mars and beyond.

Future Prospects and Artemis Program

• NASA’s Artemis program aims to return humans to the Moon, with the goal of establishing a sustainable presence.
• Initiatives like CLPS serve as precursors to Artemis, laying the groundwork for future crewed missions and infrastructure development on the lunar surface.
• Through Artemis, NASA envisions establishing a long-term human presence on the Moon, utilizing it as a platform for scientific research, technological development, and as a stepping stone for missions to Mars and beyond.

Odysseus Mission:

• Odysseus, a spacecraft built by Intuitive Machines, used a Falcon 9 rocket of SpaceX to take off from Earth on February 15.
• Intuitive Machines is a ten-year-old company based in Houston, USA.
• The spacecraft carried six NASA payloads to the Moon.
• The lander module of Odysseus, called Nova-C, has become the second one, after Chandrayaan-3 last year, to land in the Moon’s south pole region.
• This is the third moon-landing event within a year, after Chandrayaan-3 and Japans’ SLIM (Smart Lander for Investigating Moon).
• The lunar lander is designed to evaluate the environment at the moon’s south pole.
  • This is significant as NASA prepares to send a crewed mission in September 2026 with Artemis III.
  • Prior to deploying astronauts to this area, however, the agency wants to gather additional data.
  • This information will help evaluate factors such as the quantity of water present and the accessibility of this vital resource.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/intuitive-machines-odysseus-mission-9234304/

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: Scientists at the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, recently unearthed a significant discovery in the Bay of Bengal—a 50,000-year-old sediment containing giant magnetofossils.

EXPLANATION:

• This finding, published in the journal Nature in February, represents one of the youngest giant magnetofossils discovered to date.

Magnetofossils:

• Magnetofossils are fossilized remnants of magnetic particles produced by magnetotactic bacteria, also known as magnetobacteria.
• These bacteria align themselves along Earth’s magnetic field lines, utilizing tiny crystals of iron-rich minerals like magnetite or greigite to navigate changing oxygen levels in their aquatic environments.
• First described in the 1960s and 1970s, magnetotactic bacteria and their fossilized remains provide insights into ancient environmental conditions.

            Needle, spindle, bullet and spearhead shape-magnetofossils

Characteristics of the Sediment

• The sediment core retrieved from the southwestern Bay of Bengal consisted primarily of pale green silty clays.
• High-resolution transmission electron microscopy revealed the presence of magnetofossils shaped like needles, spindles, bullets, and spearheads, alongside conventional magnetofossils.
• The unique characteristics of this sediment core shed light on the environmental conditions prevailing in the late Quaternary period.

Implications of the Discovery

• The discovery challenges previous assumptions about the origins of giant magnetofossils, which were often attributed to events like hyperthermal vents or comet impacts.
• Unlike earlier finds dating back millions of years, this discovery suggests that giant magnetofossils also formed during the late Quaternary period, a mere 50,000 years ago.

Role of Environmental Factors

• Analysis of the sediment sample indicated fluctuations in monsoon activity during the last Glacial Maximum-Holocene period, approximately 29,000 to 11,700 years ago.
• The presence of magnetic minerals from distinct geological periods suggests the influence of rivers like the Godavari, Mahanadi, Ganga-Brahmaputra, Cauvery, and Penner, which discharge into the Bay of Bengal.

Environmental Conditions Favorable for Magnetotactic Bacteria

• The nutrient-rich sediment carried by these rivers provided an abundant supply of reactive iron, which, combined with organic carbon in suboxic conditions, created a conducive environment for magnetotactic bacteria to thrive.
• Additionally, freshwater discharge from rivers and oceanographic processes like eddy formation contributed to oxygenation levels conducive to bacterial growth.

National Institute of Oceanography:

• The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) is one of the 37 constituent laboratories of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi.
• NIO is headquartered at Dona Paula, Goa, and has regional centres at Kochi, Mumbai and Visakhapatnam.
• NIO was established in 1966 following the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) in the 1960s.
• It is a multi-disciplinary oceanographic research institute. The major research areas include the four traditional branches of oceanography – biological, chemical, geological/geophysical, and physical – as well as ocean engineering, marine instrumentation and marine archaeology.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/goa-scientists-find-50000-year-old-magnetic-fossils-in-bay-of-bengal/article67993453.ece

TAG: GS 2: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND GOVERNANCE

THE CONTEXT: The India TB Report 2024, released by the Union Health Ministry on March 27, highlights significant progress in tuberculosis (TB) control efforts in the country since 2015.

EXPLANATION:

• The report emphasizes reductions in TB incidence and mortality rates, along with increased notification rates and improvements in healthcare sector engagement.

Reduction in TB Incidence and Mortality Rates

• According to the report, India has achieved a commendable 16% decline in TB incidence and an 18% reduction in mortality due to TB since 2015.
• This progress is reflected in the decline of incidence rates from 237 per lakh population in 2015 to 199 per lakh population in 2022, and mortality rates from 28 per lakh population in 2015 to 23 per lakh population in 2022.

Healthcare Sector Engagement

• A noteworthy development highlighted in the report is the increased involvement of the private healthcare sector in TB case notifications.
• In 2023, nearly 32% of TB cases were notified by the private sector, marking a 17% increase from the previous year.
• This indicates improved collaboration between public and private healthcare providers in TB detection and reporting.

Regional Disparities in Notification Rates

• While overall TB case notifications have improved by over 50% in the last nine years, the report identifies regional variations in notification rates.
• Uttar Pradesh recorded the highest increase in notifications, with a 21% rise compared to the previous year, followed by Bihar with a 15% increase.
• These disparities underscore the importance of targeted interventions and resources allocation in high-burden areas.

Strategies and Initiatives

• The report outlines several key strategies and initiatives undertaken by the National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP) to accelerate TB elimination:
  • National Strategic Plan (NSP) 2017–25:
    • The NTEP is guided by the NSP 2017–25, which provides a framework for comprehensive TB control efforts.
  • Diagnostic Services:
    • The NTEP continues to provide free diagnostic services, conducting approximately 1.89 crore sputum smear tests and 68.3 lakh nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) in 2023.
    • These efforts enhance early detection and prompt treatment initiation.
  • Financial Support:
    • The Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) under the Nikshay Poshan Yojana provides financial assistance to TB patients.
    • Approximately ₹2,781 crore was disbursed to approximately one crore beneficiaries, ensuring access to essential resources for TB care.
  • Community Engagement:
    • More than 1.5 lakh Nikshay Mitras have committed to supporting persons affected by TB, emphasizing the importance of community engagement in TB control efforts.

Tuberculosis (TB):

• TB is caused by a bacterium (mycobacterium tuberculosis) that mostly affect the lungs.
• It can spread when people with TB expel bacteria into the air, for example, by coughing.
• According to the Report, most people who develop the disease are adults. In 2021, men accounted for 56.5% of the TB burden, adult women (32.5%) and children (11%).
• TB is preventable and curable and around 85% of people who develop the disease can be successfully treated with a 4 to 6 months drug treatment.

Several Initiatives by the government for TB eradication:

• ‘Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan’ to eliminate TB by 2025.
• National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025.
• National Tuberculosis Elimination Program (NTEP)- Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
• TB Harega Desh Jeetega Campaign.
• Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine included in the Indradhanush program.
• National TB Elimination Programme to meet the goal of ending the TB epidemic by 2025 the country, five years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030
• Two vaccines VPM (Vaccine Projekt Management) 1002 and MIP (Mycobacterium Indicus Pranii) have been developed and are under Phase-3 clinical trial.
• Ni-kshayPoshan Yojana: It provides Rs 500 support through direct benefit transfer to the patients.
• The government has also focused on utilizing technology and creating digital health IDs for TB patients under the Ayushman Bharat Digital Health Mission to ensure proper diagnostics and treatment are available.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/india-achieves-16-decline-in-new-tb-cases-18-reduction-in-mortality-since-2015-report/article67999625.ece

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The South East Africa Montane Archipelago (SEAMA) is a newly recognized ecoregion situated across northern Mozambique and encompassing Mount Mulanje in Malawi, southern Africa’s second-highest mountain.

EXPLANATION:

• Despite its recent recognition, SEAMA has already revealed itself as a treasure trove of previously undocumented biodiversity, drawing attention from researchers and conservationists alike.
• A recent study published in Nature Scientific Reports sheds light on the remarkable biodiversity of SEAMA.
• Through extensive research into the region’s geology and climate, the study unveiled hundreds of previously undescribed species across various taxonomic groups, including plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates.

Surveyed Sites and Species Documentation

• The study identified at least 30 sites within the core of the SEAMA ecoregion, with nine in Malawi and 21 in Mozambique.
• These sites, previously unexplored by scientific inquiry, provided critical insights into the region’s rich biodiversity.
• The documentation includes 127 plant species, 45 vertebrates (including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals), and 45 invertebrate species.
• Notably, SEAMA harbors 22 strictly endemic reptile species, with 19 of them dependent on forests, making them highly vulnerable to habitat loss.

Biological Surveys in Mozambique

• While Mount Mulanje in Malawi has been subject to numerous biological surveys, the mountains in northern Mozambique remained largely unstudied until recent decades.
• The aftermath of protracted conflicts hindered scientific exploration in the region until the past 20 years.
• Scientific expeditions in Mozambique uncovered numerous species new to science and highlighted the levels of shared endemism among different sites.

Unique Ecological Characteristics

• SEAMA exhibits distinct ecological characteristics, including higher annual rainfall and humidity compared to surrounding regions.
• Mount Mabu, identified as the most extensive mid-elevation rainforest in southern Africa, contributes significantly to the region’s biodiversity.
• These ecological nuances underscore SEAMA’s global biological importance and justify its recognition as a new ecoregion.

Conservation Challenges and Urgent Need

• Despite its ecological significance, SEAMA faces severe deforestation threats, primarily driven by slash-and-burn agricultural practices and charcoal production.
• Since 2000, the ecoregion has experienced a significant loss of primary humid forest cover, highlighting the urgent need for conservation initiatives.
• Conservation agriculture practices and sustainable livelihood alternatives are essential to mitigate these threats and safeguard SEAMA’s biodiversity.

Ecoregion: An ecoregion is a geographical area characterized by distinct assemblages of plants, animals, and ecological features.

SEAMA:

• The South East Africa Montane Archipelago (SEAMA) is a recently recognized ecoregion located in southern Africa, spanning across northern Mozambique and incorporating Mount Mulanje in Malawi.
• SEAMA is distinguished by its mountainous terrain, encompassing diverse habitats such as montane forests, grasslands, and rock faces.
• Despite its relatively recent recognition, SEAMA has been identified as a hub of biodiversity, hosting numerous species of plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates.

Mount Mabu:

• Mount Mabu is a mountain in northern Mozambique, famous for its old-growth rain forest.
• Mount Mabu is approximately 1,700 metres (5,600 feet) high and the forest covers about 7,000 hectares (27 square miles).
• While well known locally, the Mount Mabu forest and its extremely diverse wildlife were unknown to plant and animal scientists until 2005.
• There are communities living around Mount Mabu, the closest being Nangaze, Nvava, and Limbue.
• The mountain plays a crucial role in the lives of the communities, and in the cosmology of the Nangaze leader, Mount Mabu belongs to a kinship network in which Mabu is the oldest brother, Mount Muriba is the youngest brother and River Mugue is the middle sister.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/africa/southern-africa-s-new-ecoregion-brimming-with-undocumented-life-but-in-urgent-need-of-conservation-95244

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Since its emergence in 2020, the highly pathogenic H5N1 bird flu virus has posed a significant threat to both avian and mammalian species worldwide.

EXPLANATION:

• The virus has led to mass mortality events among various bird populations and has also affected mammals, particularly marine species, raising concerns about its potential impact on biodiversity and ecosystem health.

Spread and Impact of H5N1 Virus

• The H5N1 bird flu virus has spread rapidly across the globe, infecting birds in over 80 countries by December 2023.
• Originating from China in 1996, the virus has evolved into a highly pathogenic form, causing significant mortality among domestic poultry and wild bird populations.
• In recent years, the virus has also crossed species barriers, affecting mammals such as seals, sea lions, and even mainland Antarctica, signaling an unprecedented threat to wildlife.

Impact on Birds

• Wild bird populations have borne the brunt of the H5N1 outbreak, with reports of mass mortality events among various species.
• Particularly affected are waterfowl like ducks and geese, as well as seabirds such as gulls and terns.
• Notably, endangered species like the California condor have also suffered losses, raising concerns about the conservation status of already vulnerable populations.

Impact on Mammals

• The spread of H5N1 to mammals poses significant risks to both marine and terrestrial species.
• Marine mammals, including sea lions, dolphins, and seals, have experienced devastating mortality rates, with tens of thousands of deaths reported in regions like Chile, Peru, and the United States.
• The infection has also affected terrestrial mammals, including foxes, pumas, skunks, and bears, highlighting the broad reach of the virus across different ecosystems.

Unique Vulnerability of Marine Mammals

• Among mammals, marine species are particularly vulnerable to H5N1 infection due to their close proximity in densely populated coastal areas and their dependence on healthy marine ecosystems for survival.
• The mass mortality events observed among sea lions, dolphins, and seals underscore the severity of the threat posed by the virus to marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

Factors Driving Spread

• While the exact factors driving the large-scale spread of H5N1 remain under investigation, scientists have suggested that climate change may play a role.
• Rising global temperatures alter bird behavior and distribution patterns, facilitating the spread of the virus across different regions.
• Additionally, warmer sea temperatures can weaken marine mammals, making them more susceptible to diseases like H5N1.

Human Health Risks

• While humans rarely contract bird flu, there is a risk of transmission, particularly among individuals working in close proximity to infected birds in poultry farms.
• Although human cases are relatively rare, the potential for zoonotic transmission underscores the importance of vigilant surveillance and biosecurity measures to prevent outbreaks among both animals and humans.

Bird flu and H5N1:

• Bird flu, also known as avian flu, refers to an infectious viral illness that mainly infects and spreads among poultry and some wild birds.
• There are different strains of bird flu virus, which have been circulating for a very long time among at least 100 bird species, including wild waterfowl, such as ducks and geese, without much harming them.
• From time to time, a form of the flu virus jumps from wild birds to poultry farms, and replicates in cramped warehouses of farmed birds.
• It then quickly evolves into a highly pathogenic flu virus that causes a larger wave of illness and death than usual among birds.
• The currently circulating type of H5N1 is one such highly pathogenic flu virus.
• It has “descended from a virus that caused an outbreak on a goose farm in Guangdong, China, in 1996.
• That virus — one of a type of virus known as H5N1 — was highly pathogenic and killed more than 40 per cent of the farm birds it infected.
• The new version of H5N1 first emerged in Europe in 2020 and then rapidly reached Europe, Africa, and Asia.
• By late 2021, it had spread to North America and in the fall of 2022, it appeared in South America.
• In February 2024, the virus stormed through mainland Antarctica.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-global/h5n1-bird-flu-mammals-9236846/

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: In a significant move to enhance efficiency and flexibility in the Indian securities market, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) introduced the T+0 settlement cycle.

EXPLANATION:

• This initiative aims to streamline processes, reduce settlement times, and provide various benefits to investors and the market ecosystem.
• SEBI issued operational guidelines for the introduction of the T+0 settlement cycle, which was launched initially on an optional basis for a select group of securities and brokers.

T+0 trading settlement cycle:

• The capital markets regulator SEBI proposed to introduce a facility for clearing and settlement of funds and securities on T+0 (same day) on an optional basis, in addition to the existing T+1 settlement cycle.
• The regulator has also proposed to introduce optional instant settlement at a later stage.
• Under the T+0 trade cycle, the settlement of trades will happen on the same day after the closure of the T+0 market.
• If investors sell a share, they will get the money credited to their account the same day, and the buyer will also get the shares in their demat account on the very day of the transaction.
• Initially, the T+0 settlement cycle was introduced for a select group of 25 securities, including prominent companies such as Ambuja Cements Ltd, Bajaj Auto Ltd, Cipla Ltd, and State Bank of India, among others.
• These securities were chosen to pilot the T+0 settlement cycle, with plans for potential expansion in the future.
• All investors are eligible to participate in the T+0 settlement cycle provided they meet the prescribed timelines, processes, and risk requirements outlined by Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs).
• This inclusive approach aims to ensure broad access to the benefits of same-day settlement while maintaining prudent risk management standards.

Trading Timings and Price Band

• During the optional T+0 settlement cycle, trading occurs within a single continuous session from 09:15 AM to 1:30 PM.
• Settlement of funds and securities is completed on the same day by 4:30 PM.
• Price bands in the T+0 segment operate with a range of +100 basis points from the price in the regular T+1 market, with recalibration after every 50 basis points movement.

Benefits of T+0 Trade Settlement

• The T+0 settlement cycle offers several advantages for investors and the securities market ecosystem:
  • Cost and Time Efficiency:
    • By enabling same-day settlement of trades, investors can realize cost savings and expedite the deployment of capital, leading to greater efficiency in the market.
  • Transparency in Charges:
    • The shortened settlement cycle promotes transparency in charges levied on investors, enhancing trust and confidence in the market infrastructure.
  • Risk Management Enhancement:
    • The move towards T+0 settlement strengthens risk management practices at clearing corporations and across the securities market.
    • Trades are backed by upfront funds and securities, mitigating counterparty risk.
  • Flexibility and Control:
    • Investors gain greater control over their funds and securities with faster pay-out mechanisms.
    • This flexibility empowers investors to manage their portfolios more effectively.
  • Market Efficiency:
    • By freeing up capital and reducing settlement times, the T+0 settlement cycle enhances overall market efficiency, facilitating smoother operations and trading activities.

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI):

• SEBI is a statutory body established on April 12, 1992 in accordance with the provisions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992.
• The basic functions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India is to protect the interests of investors in securities and to promote and regulate the securities market.
• Before SEBI came into existence, Controller of Capital Issues was the regulatory authority; it derived authority from the Capital Issues (Control) Act, 1947.
• Initially SEBI was a non statutory body without any statutory power.
• The headquarters of SEBI is situated in Mumbai. The regional offices of SEBI are located in Ahmedabad, Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-economics/t0-settlement-cycle-9236796/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Coral islands, such as India’s Lakshadweep, face significant threats due to climate change, primarily caused by global warming.

EXPLANATION:

• The extraction and burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and other anthropogenic activities contribute to rising temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events, leading to the destruction of coral reefs.

Corals and Coral Bleaching

• Coral reefs are vital ecosystems built by coral polyps, which have a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae algae.
• When water temperatures rise, corals expel these algae, leading to bleaching—a phenomenon where corals lose their vibrant colors and eventually die.
• Ocean acidification exacerbates bleaching by reducing calcium mineral availability for coral exoskeletons.

Types of coral reefs in India:

• Fringing reefs
  • Fringing reefs evolve and develop near the continent and remain close to the coastline. These reefs are separated from the coastline by small, shallow lagoons. They are the most commonly found reefs in the world.
• Barrier reefs
  • Barrier reefs are found offshore on the continental shelf. They usually run parallel to the coastline at some distance. A deep and wide lagoon is located between the coastline and the barrier reef.
• Atolls
  • Atolls are formed on mid-oceanic ridges. They are shaped circularly or elliptically and are surrounded by seas on all four sides and have shallow waters in the center called a lagoon.
• All the three major reef types occur in India. The mainland coast of India has two widely separated areas containing reefs: the Gulf of Kachchh in the northwest, which has some of the most northerly reefs in the world, and Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar in the southeast.
• In addition to these, there are patches of reef growth on the West Coast, for example, coral reefs at Malvan.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have fringing reefs around many islands, and a long barrier reef (329 km) on the west coast.
• Little is known about these reefs, which may be the most diverse and pristine reefs in India. The Lakshadweep also has extensive reefs but these are also poorly explored.

Impact of Climate Change on Coral Reefs

• Global warming has resulted in widespread coral bleaching events, causing significant damage to coral reefs worldwide.
• The loss of coral reefs has severe repercussions for coastal communities, including those inhabiting coral islands like Lakshadweep, who rely on these ecosystems for livelihoods and protection from rising sea levels.

The Role of Sound in Coral Recovery

• Recent research suggests that sound may play a crucial role in coral reef recovery.
• Scientists conducted a study in the Virgin Islands, where they observed that healthy reef sounds attracted coral polyps, leading to increased settlement rates on degraded reefs.
• By using underwater speaker systems to replay healthy reef sounds, researchers saw a positive impact on coral settlement rates, indicating a potential avenue for coral restoration efforts.

Challenges and Considerations

• While the study offers promising results, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations and potential challenges.
• Scaling up this approach for large-scale coral reef restoration requires further research and testing.
• Factors such as sound volume, frequency, and other environmental parameters need to be carefully considered to ensure the success of coral settlement initiatives.
• Additionally, unforeseen complications may arise during implementation, underscoring the need for continued scientific inquiry and adaptive management strategies.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/can-good-sounds-save-coral-islands-from-bleaching/article67987110.ece/amp/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Sundarbans are facing multifaceted challenges, ranging from environmental degradation to socio-economic disparities. However, through nature-based solutions, sustainable development initiatives, and inclusive policies, there is hope for preserving this invaluable ecosystem and improving the livelihoods of its inhabitants.

EXPLANATION:

• The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Ramsar site.
• It is a vast mangrove forest delta spread across India and Bangladesh.
• Sundarbans is situated in the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) delta and depends on the tidal rivers and mangroves.
• The rivers are mostly saline as they disconnect from the ‘parent river’.
• The scarcity of freshwater is the burning issue in the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve.
• It provides shelter for 84 species of flora, including 26 mangrove species, 453 species of fauna, 120 species of fish, 290 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and eight amphibian species.
• More than 12 million people — 4.5 million in India and 7.5 million in Bangladesh — live in this estuarine ecosystem.
• Its ecological significance extends to its role as a habitat for millions of people who depend on its resources for sustenance.

Challenges Facing the Sundarbans Ecosystem

• Freshwater Scarcity:
  • The Sundarbans face freshwater scarcity due to the saline nature of tidal rivers and reduced flow from upstream, posing a significant challenge to the ecosystem’s health.
• Environmental Pollution:
  • Pollution, including microplastic contamination from nearby rivers, chemical pollutants from industrial sources like Mongla Port and India’s Leather Estate, and hydrocarbon contamination, threatens the delicate balance of the Sundarbans ecosystem.
• Human-Wildlife Conflicts and Exploitation:
  • Issues such as conflicts between humans and animals, trafficking, hunting, and unsustainable exploitation of forest resources exacerbate the challenges faced by the Sundarbans and its inhabitants.
• Climate Change Impacts:
  • Rising temperatures, changing sea levels, coastal erosion, and extreme weather events attributed to climate change pose significant threats to the Sundarbans’ stability and biodiversity.
• Urbanization and Land Encroachment:
  • Coastal erosion and sea-level rise have led to the encroachment of lands by saline waters, displacing communities and forcing migration to urban areas, putting further pressure on resources.

Nature-Based Solutions for Sundarbans

• Promoting Sustainable Agriculture: Encouraging the cultivation of salt-tolerant crop varieties and promoting organic farming practices can mitigate the impact of freshwater scarcity and enhance agricultural productivity.
• Economic Diversification and Livelihood Enhancement: Establishing agro-based enterprises, promoting medicinal plant cultivation, and supporting women-led self-help groups can create alternative livelihood opportunities and reduce dependency on fragile ecosystems.
• Wastewater Treatment and Ecosystem Restoration: Utilizing indigenous aquatic plants, mangrove seedlings, and beneficial bacteria for wastewater treatment and pond ecosystem restoration can improve water quality and support aquatic biodiversity.
• Clean Energy Initiatives: Implementing solar and bio-energy policies can provide sustainable energy solutions, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating environmental degradation.
• Gender-Inclusive Development: Prioritizing women’s participation in development initiatives and ensuring their representation in decision-making processes can foster inclusive and sustainable development in the Sundarbans.
• Healthcare Infrastructure and Disaster Preparedness: Establishing well-equipped healthcare facilities and disaster preparedness policies are essential for safeguarding the health and safety of Sundarbans inhabitants in the face of climate-related risks and natural disasters.
• Cultural Preservation and Tourism Development: Promoting the unique culture and cuisine of the Sundarbans can attract tourism, contributing to economic growth while ensuring the preservation of local traditions and heritage.

World heritage site and UNESCO:

• A World Heritage site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).
• World Heritage sites are designated by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance.
• The sites are judged to contain “cultural and natural heritage around the world considered being of outstanding value to humanity.”
• The concept of World Heritage emerged after WWII amid concerns over the widespread destruction of cultural sites and nature.
• Efforts to remedy this led to the drafting of the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, commonly known as the World Heritage Convention.
• It established the framework to preserve the world’s outstanding heritage.

Ramsar Sites:

• Any wetland site which has been listed under the Ramsar Convention that aims to conserve it and promote sustainable use of its natural resources is called a Ramsar Site.
• Ramsar Convention is known as the Convention of Wetlands.
• It was established in 1971 by UNESCO and came into force in 1975.
• India is a party to the Ramsar Convention. India signed under it on 1st February 1982.
• The Ramsar Convention works closely with six organizations known as International Organization Partners(IOPs). These are:
  • Birdlife International
  • International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
  • International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
  • Wetlands International
  • World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
  • International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/nature-based-solutions-can-help-sundarbans-survive-95230

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati has achieved a significant milestone by successfully transferring technology for the production of India’s first recombinant virus-based vaccine for classical swine fever.

EXPLANATION:

• This breakthrough represents a pivotal development in combating the highly contagious disease affecting pigs and wild boars.
• IIT Guwahati has facilitated the transfer of pioneering vaccine technology to BioMed Pvt Ltd, a manufacturing company specializing in high-quality vaccines.
• This transfer enables commercial production of the vaccine, offering a swift and cost-effective solution for pig vaccination.
• The vaccine developed at IIT Guwahati utilizes a recombinant virus-based platform, which is a novel approach in India for combating classical swine fever.
• This method represents a significant advancement in vaccine technology, ensuring effective protection against the disease.
• The development of this vaccine is the result of collaborative efforts between researchers from the Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering at IIT Guwahati and Assam Agricultural University in Guwahati.
• The collaboration underscores the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation in scientific breakthroughs.
• The successful transfer of vaccine technology to a leading company in the veterinary vaccine sector marks a remarkable achievement.
• It demonstrates the potential for academia-industry collaboration in addressing pressing health challenges and translating research into practical solutions.

Swine Fever:

• Classical swine fever is a highly infectious and often fatal viral disease of swine.
• Swine infected with classical swine fever virus usually develop fever, hemorrhages, lethargy, yellowish diarrhea, vomiting, and purple skin discoloration of the ears, lower abdomen, and legs.
• Neurological signs, reproductive failures, and abortion may also be observed.
• Diagnostic tests for the disease include RT-qPCR assay, virus isolation, immunofluorescence assay, and detection of antibodies by serological tests such as ELISA and virus neutralization.
• Swine fever poses a significant threat in various states across India, particularly in the northeastern states, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Gujarat, and Kerala.
• The availability of an indigenous vaccine holds promise for controlling the spread of the disease and safeguarding the livestock industry.

Innovative Methodology:

• The vaccine development process involves harnessing a reverse genetic platform, a method widely used for developing vaccines against influenza.
• This innovative approach leverages the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) as a carrier for essential proteins of the classical swine fever virus, ensuring efficient immunity development.
• Reverse genetics offers several advantages, including speed and cost-effectiveness, in vaccine development.
• By utilizing NDV as a carrier, researchers can expedite the vaccine production process while maintaining affordability, crucial for widespread adoption and implementation.

Future Prospects and Regulatory Process:

• Currently, the vaccine is undergoing the process of filing test and analysis licenses. Once approved, it will be ready for commercial distribution, marking a significant step forward in disease prevention and control strategies for the livestock industry.

SOURCE: https://www.livemint.com/science/news/iit-guwahati-completes-technology-transfer-for-first-ever-india-made-swine-fever-vaccine/amp-11711462237772.html

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: Professor Jayant Murthy is a renowned Indian astrophysicist known for his significant contributions to space missions, ultraviolet astronomy, and the study of the interstellar medium.

EXPLANATION:

• An asteroid was named after Professor Jayant Murthy by the International Astronomical Union (IAU)’s Working Group.
• Previously cataloged as 2005 EX296, the asteroid is now officially designated as (215884) Jayantmurthy.
• The asteroid (215884) Jayantmurthy was discovered by MW Buie in 2005 at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona, USA.
• It orbits the Sun between Mars and Jupiter, completing a full orbit every 3.3 years.

Contributions of Professor Murthy:

• NASA’s New Horizons Mission:
  • Professor Murthy played a crucial role in NASA’s New Horizons Science Team.
  • The New Horizons mission, NASA’s first venture in the New Frontiers programme, was launched in 2006.
  • The mission gained global attention with its historic flyby of Pluto in 2015, providing unprecedented views and data of the dwarf planet and its moons.
  • Its objective is to conduct a detailed study of the surface features, geological structures, and morphology of Pluto and its moons. This includes mapping the surface composition of Pluto and Charon.
  • The mission reshaped our understanding of distant celestial objects by expanding the boundaries of space exploration.
• Contributions to Understanding Cosmic Phenomena:
  • Professor Murthy’s work on studying ultraviolet background radiation far out in the Solar System has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of cosmic phenomena.
  • His observations, free from interference from the Sun and interplanetary medium, have provided valuable insights.
• Recognition and Gratitude:
  • Expressing his gratitude for the honor of having an asteroid named after him, Professor Murthy highlighted his involvement in the New Horizons team led by Dr. Alan Stern.
  • He expressed his thrill at the recognition of his contributions to the mission.
• Retirement and Continued Impact:
  • In 2021, Professor Murthy retired from the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) but continues to serve as an Honorary Professor.
  • He previously served as the acting Director of IIA from July 2018 to October 2019.
• Global Impact of Research:
  • The naming of the asteroid after Professor Murthy signifies the global impact of his research and contributions to the field of astrophysics.
  • His work has earned recognition not only within India but also internationally.

Asteroid:

• Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are rocky, airless remnants left over from the early formation of our solar system about 4.6 billion years ago.
• The current known asteroid count is at least 1,351,400.
• Most of this ancient space rubble can be found orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter within the main asteroid belt.
• Asteroids range in size from Vesta – the largest at about 329 miles (530 kilometers) in diameter – to bodies that are less than 33 feet (10 meters) across.
• The total mass of all the asteroids combined is less than that of Earth’s Moon.

International Astronomical Union:

• The International Astronomical Union (IAU) was founded in 1919.
• Its headquarters is in Paris, France.
• Its mission is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects, including research, communication, education and development, through international cooperation.
• Its Individual and Junior Members — structured in Divisions, Commissions, and Working Groups — are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the Ph.D. level and beyond, active in professional research and education in astronomy.
• The IAU has 12753 Individual and Junior Members in 110 countries worldwide.
• Of those countries 85 are National Members. In addition, the IAU collaborates with various scientific organizations all over the world.

SOURCE: https://www.livemint.com/science/news/indian-prof-jayant-murthy-honored-with-asteroid-name-jayantmurthy-who-is-he/amp-11711104093086.html

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: India is poised to shift from its traditional minimum wage system to a more comprehensive living wage system by 2025.

EXPLANATION:

• This transition signifies a significant departure from the existing framework and aims to address the challenges faced by millions of workers in the country.
• To facilitate this transition, the Indian government is seeking technical support from the International Labour Organisation (ILO).
• The assistance is intended to develop a robust framework for estimating and implementing the living wage system effectively.
• The move aligns with the recent endorsement of the living wage concept by the ILO.
• This endorsement, achieved during a Meeting of Experts on wage policies in February, underscores the global recognition of the importance of ensuring fair wages for workers worldwide.
• The primary objective behind this transition is to accelerate efforts to lift millions of Indian workers out of poverty and ensure their overall well-being.
• This shift is particularly crucial given the large proportion of the workforce employed in the unorganised sector, estimated to be around 90%.

Challenges with Minimum Wage System:

• Despite the existence of minimum wage regulations, challenges persist, including wage payment discrepancies and stagnation in the national wage floor since 2017.
• These issues underscore the limitations of the current system in ensuring adequate compensation for workers across various sectors and regions.

Code on Wages (2019):

• India’s commitment to wage reform is evidenced by the passing of the Code on Wages in 2019.
• This legislation proposes a universal wage floor that will apply uniformly across all states once implemented, addressing the disparities and inconsistencies prevalent in the current wage structure.

Utilizing ILO Assistance for Capacity Building:

• India’s decision to seek assistance from the ILO for capacity building and systemic data collection reflects its commitment to effectively implement the living wage system.
• By leveraging international expertise and best practices, India aims to streamline the transition process and achieve tangible outcomes.

Definition of Living Wage:

• A living wage is defined as the wage level necessary to afford a decent standard of living for workers and their families, taking into account the country’s socio-economic conditions.
• It is calculated based on the cost of essential goods and services required to maintain a reasonable quality of life.
• India’s transition to a living wage system aligns with its broader commitment to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. In particular, it contributes to the goal of promoting decent work and economic growth, emphasizing the importance of equitable remuneration for all workers.

Economic Capacity and Growth Implications:

• India’s robust economic growth, evidenced by a growth rate of 8.4%, suggests the country’s capacity to support higher wages.
• By implementing living wages, India aims to not only improve the standard of living for its workers but also stimulate economic growth through increased consumer spending and reduced income inequality.

International Labour Organization (ILO):

• The only tripartite U.N. agency, since 1919 the ILO brings together governments, employers and workers of 187 Member States, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.
• It was created in 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I, to reflect the belief that universal and lasting peace can be accomplished only if it is based on social justice.
• The Constitution of the ILO was drafted in early 1919 by the Labour Commission
• It became the first affiliated specialized agency of the United Nations in 1946.
• Its headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland
• Its founding mission is “social justice is essential to universal and lasting peace”.
• It promotes internationally recognized human and labour rights.
• It received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969.

SOURCE: https://www.livemint.com/economy/india-to-shift-from-minimum-wage-to-living-wage-system-by-2025-know-what-it-means-for-the-country/amp-11711504784820.html

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: World Earth Hour Day is celebrated annually on the last Saturday in March, initiated by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) as a global movement to raise awareness about environmental issues.

EXPLANATION:

• Earth Hour is the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF)’s annual initiative that began in 2007
• During Earth Hour, individuals and communities are encouraged to turn off non-essential lights for 60 minutes from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time.
• The primary objective of Earth Hour is to highlight the importance of environmental conservation and sustainability.
• By symbolically switching off lights, participants demonstrate their commitment to reducing energy consumption and combating climate change.
• Earth Hour serves as a reminder of our collective responsibility to protect the planet and inspire positive action towards a more sustainable future.
• Earth Hour aims to increase awareness and spark global conversations on protecting nature, tackling the climate crisis, and working together to shape a brighter future for humans.

18th Edition:

• The upcoming Earth Hour in 2024 marks the 18th edition of the event, themed as the ‘Biggest Hour for Earth.’
• It aims to mobilize a larger audience and promote greater engagement with environmental issues, particularly among individuals who may not be fully aware of the environmental crisis.

Role of WWF:

• The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) plays a crucial role in organizing and promoting Earth Hour globally.
• WWF India is actively involved in coordinating Earth Hour activities within the country, including the release of an Earth Day anthem composed by Shantanu Moitra and sung by Papon, urging people to conserve nature.

Celebrity Endorsements:

• Earth Hour receives support from various personalities and influencers, such as popular baker and cookbook author Shivesh Bhatia and renowned fashion designer Rahul Mishra.
• Their participation in turning off non-essential lights during Earth Hour helps amplify the message and encourage broader participation in the global environmental movement.

Global Participation:

• Earth Hour is observed in over 190 countries and territories worldwide, with millions of individuals and organizations participating each year.
• The event symbolizes unity and solidarity in addressing environmental challenges on a global scale.

Impact and Outreach:

• Earth Hour goes beyond a mere symbolic gesture; it serves as a catalyst for action and mobilizes communities to adopt sustainable practices beyond the designated hour.
• The event inspires individuals, businesses, and governments to commit to reducing carbon emissions, conserving energy, and protecting biodiversity.

Previous Observances in India:

• In previous years, Earth Hour was observed across various cities in India, including Mumbai, Kolkata, and New Delhi. Public places and landmarks, such as Rashtrapati Bhavan and Akshardham temple, participated by turning off lights for an hour.
• This collective action underscores India’s commitment to environmental conservation and sustainability.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/world-earth-hour-day-on-march-23-2024-wwf-india/article67983348.ece

TAG: GS 1: GEOGRAPHY, GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: India is actively seeking critical minerals, including cobalt, from African countries such as Zambia, Namibia, Congo, Ghana, and Mozambique.

EXPLANATION:

• These minerals, such as lithium and cobalt, are essential for various industries, particularly technology and manufacturing sectors.
• While India looks towards Africa for cobalt and other critical minerals, it continues to engage with Australia for lithium blocks.
• This dual approach reflects India’s strategy to diversify its sources of critical minerals and secure a stable supply chain.
• Ten offshore blocks are slated to be put on sale, with the auction scheduled to take place after the elections.
• This indicates a proactive approach by the Indian government to tap into offshore mineral resources.
• The result of the first round of auction for critical minerals will be announced within ten days.
• Additionally, the lithium block in Jammu and Kashmir, which received only two bids in the first round, will be auctioned in the third tranche.
• This demonstrates the government’s commitment to optimizing the auction process and maximizing participation.
• The government recently launched the third tranche of auction for critical and strategic minerals, with seven blocks up for sale.
• These blocks are being auctioned under specific rules outlined in the Mineral (Auction) Rules 2015, indicating regulatory clarity and transparency in the auction process.
• So far, the Indian government has initiated the auction of 38 critical and strategic mineral blocks, reflecting its determination to harness domestic and international mineral resources effectively.
• This underscores India’s strategic focus on securing a sustainable supply of essential minerals to fuel its economic growth and industrial development.

Critical Minerals:

• Critical minerals are those minerals that are essential for economic development and national security, the lack of availability of these minerals or concentration of extraction or processing in a few geographical locations may lead to supply chain vulnerabilities and even disruption of supplies.
• Rare earth elements and other critical minerals, found abundantly in Africa, have drawn widespread attention amid calls issued by multilateral bodies, including the United Nations and its affiliates, to switch to emission-free sources of energy.
• Reducing the carbon footprint is seen as essential to slow down the pace of global warming.

The following critical minerals are in focus to build a decarbonised energy infrastructure:

• Rare earth elements: They are used in offshore wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors.
• Lithium, cobalt, and high-purity nickel: They are used in energy storage technologies.
• Platinum group metals: They are used in catalysts for automotive, chemical, fuel cell, and green hydrogen products.
• Gallium and germanium: They are used in developing semiconductors.

Some of the most critical minerals found in Africa include:

• Cobalt: The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is the world’s leading producer of cobalt, which is a key component of lithium-ion batteries.
• Lithium: Lithium is used in electric vehicle batteries and is becoming increasingly in demand. Africa has significant lithium reserves in countries like Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Mali.
• Copper: Copper is a vital mineral for electrical wiring and is also used in renewable energy technologies. Africa has large copper reserves in countries like Zambia, the DRC, and South Africa.
• Graphite: Graphite is used in lithium-ion batteries and is also a key component of solar panels. Africa has significant graphite reserves in countries like Mozambique, Madagascar, and Tanzania.
• Rare earth elements: Rare earth elements are used in a wide variety of products, including electric vehicles, wind turbines, and consumer electronics. Africa has significant rare earth element reserves in countries like Burundi, Madagascar, and South Africa.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION PLEASE REFER TO THE CA MONTHLY MAGAZINE OF MARCH.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/business/india-looking-to-africa-for-critical-minerals-mines-secretary-vl-kantha-rao-9228304/