Table of Contents
THE CONTEXT: In India, women’s employment is challenging. Female employment and empowerment are linked, and India’s Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) is consistently lower than the global average of 47%. However, there have been some signs of improvement over the years. The importance of female participation in the workforce for economic empowerment and societal progress is often overlooked.
ISSUES:
- Fluctuating Women’s Work Participation Rates: Women’s work participation rates for those aged 15 and above have seen significant fluctuations, from approximately 42% in the 1993-94 to 2004-05 period, to 28% in 2011-12, dropping further to 22% in 2017-18, and then experiencing a surge to 36% by 2022-23. These changes raise questions about the underlying factors driving these movements.
- Dependence on National Sample Surveys (NSS) and Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS): The debate primarily relies on data from NSS and PLFS, which might not fully capture the nuances of women’s engagement in the workforce, especially in rural areas. There are two contrasting narratives regarding the data on women’s employment. One views the decline as indicative of diminishing job opportunities and the other as a sign of economic progress allowing women to focus more on domestic responsibilities.
- Significant Role of Agriculture: A major finding is that the change in women’s work participation, particularly within the last five years, has been driven mainly by their work on family farms. This work bounced back from 10% in 2017 to 23% in the recent survey, indicating a significant shift.
- Challenge in Measuring Women’s Employment: The NSS and PLFS surveys and their methodology, which includes questions on principal and subsidiary activities, might not accurately capture the breadth of women’s work, especially in rural settings where women often engage in diverse activities throughout the day.
- Impact of Question-Wording: Studies have shown that framed questions can significantly affect reported work participation rates. For example, altering the NSS-style questions increased the work participation rate among rural women from 28% to 44%, highlighting the underreporting of women’s employment in agriculture and animal care.
- Statistical System in Crisis: There is an acknowledgment that India’s statistical system, especially in the context of the NSS, has faced challenges since the late 1990s, with a shift towards hiring contractual workers for surveys. This shift has been associated with a decline in the quality of employment data.
- Economic Shifts: The counterargument suggests that economic shifts, such as men moving out of agriculture, might have created more opportunities for women in farming, although this does not fully account for the observed fluctuations in women’s work participation rates.
THE WAY FORWARD:
- Enhancing Data Collection and Analysis: Improve survey methodologies to accurately capture women’s work, especially in informal and agricultural sectors. Adopt the “time-use survey” approach, as utilized in countries like Norway and South Africa, to record how individuals allocate their time across various activities. This can capture unpaid work and informal labor more accurately. The International Labour Organization (ILO) recommends integrating specific modules into labor force surveys to capture gender-specific employment challenges, such as work in dual roles (productive and reproductive).
- Policy and Legal Framework Modifications: Implement policy and legal reforms to support women’s entry and sustained participation in the workforce. Chile’s inclusion of gender-responsive budgeting focuses on allocating financial resources to programs that address gender disparities. The Indian Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017 is a step forward but needs more robust implementation and expansion to cover the unorganized sectors.
- Skills Training and Education: Enhance access to education and vocational training for women to broaden their employment opportunities beyond agriculture and informal sectors. India’s Skill India mission could be expanded with a focused component on women, especially in digital literacy and technology skills.
- Promoting Entrepreneurship and Access to Credit: Encourage women’s entrepreneurship through easier access to credit, business training, and support networks. Bangladesh’s Grameen Bank model showcases how microfinance can empower women entrepreneurs. The Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) by NITI Aayog is a commendable initiative that can be expanded to provide more targeted support and resources.
- Flexible Work Arrangements and Social Support Infrastructure: Implement flexible work arrangements and strengthen the social support infrastructure, including childcare services, to ease women’s entry into the workforce. Sweden’s parental leave policies and subsidized childcare services provide a supportive environment for women’s employment. Kerala’s Kudumbashree mission provides an exemplary model of combining social support with economic empowerment for women.
- Legislative Action to Ensure Equal Pay and Opportunities: Enforce laws to eliminate gender pay gaps and ensure equal opportunities for advancement in all sectors. The Equal Pay International Coalition (EPIC) led by ILO, UN Women, and OECD is a global initiative to achieve pay equity. Indian policies can align with such global standards to ensure fairness in compensation. Committees like the Justice Verma Committee in India have recommended wide-ranging reforms for enhancing women’s safety and equality. Similar recommendations can be extended and enforced in employment contexts.
THE CONCLUSION:
The nuanced analysis of women’s employment trends in India reveals a complex interplay of economic, social, and methodological factors that challenge simplistic interpretations of the data. This calls for refined data collection methods and a deeper understanding of women’s roles in both the economy and the household to accurately chart the course of women’s employment in India.
UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTIONS:
Q.1) Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. 2021
Q.2) Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing feminization of agriculture in India. 2014
Q.3) Male membership needs to be encouraged to make women’s organization free from gender bias. Comment. 2013
MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:
Q.1) Critically analyze the factors contributing to the lack of skilled jobs for women in India, including gender discrimination, social norms, and inadequate access to vocational training. Suggest measures to bridge the gender-based skill gaps and enhance women’s employment prospects in the country.
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