THE CONTEXT: Recently, tremors have been felt in Meghalaya and in the region around Joshimath and Chamoli in Uttarakhand. These events got further intensified in the aftermath of a series of earthquakes in Turkey recently. In this context, the Delhi High Court while hearing a petition, recently asked the state government to file a status report and action plan on the structural safety of buildings in Delhi. The following article intends to explain the catastrophe of Earthquake and analyse India’s vulnerability and preparedness for the same.

UNDERSTANDING THE GENESIS OF EARTHQUAKES

• Earthquakes are the result of sudden movement along faults within the Earth. The movement releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which propagate through the Earth and cause the ground surface to shake. Such movement on the faults is generally a response to long-term deformation and the buildup of stress.
• Seismic waves from large earthquakes pass throughout the Earth. These waves contain vital information about the internal structure of the Earth. As seismic waves pass through the Earth, they are refracted, or bent, like rays of light bend when they pass through a glass prism. Because the speed of the seismic waves depends on density, we can use the travel time of seismic waves to map change in density with depth and show that the Earth is composed of several layers.
• The Earth’s outermost layer is fragmented into about 15 major slabs called tectonic plates. These slabs form the lithosphere, which is comprised of the crust (continental and oceanic) and the upper part of the mantle. Tectonic plates move very slowly relative to each other, typically a few centimeters per year, but this still causes a huge amount of deformation at the plate boundaries, which in turn results in earthquakes.

OUTBREAK OF AN EARTHQUAKE

• Observations show that most earthquakes are associated with tectonic plate boundaries, and the theory of plate tectonics can be used to provide a simplified explanation of the global distribution of earthquakes, while some of the characteristics of earthquakes can be explained by using a simple elastic rebound theory.
• What drives the movement of tectonic plates?

Below the tectonic plates lies the Earth’s asthenosphere. The asthenosphere behaves like a fluid over a very long-time scale. There are a number of competing theories that attempt to explain what drives the movement of tectonic plates.

• Mantle convection currents: warm mantle currents drive and carry plates of lithosphere along a like a conveyor belt.
• Ridge push (buoyant upwelling mantle at mid-ocean ridges): newly formed plates at oceanic ridges are warm, so they have a higher elevation at the oceanic ridge than the colder, more dense plate material further away; gravity causes the higher plate at the ridge to push away the lithosphere that lies further from the ridge.
• Slab pull: older, colder plates sink at subduction zones because, as they cool, they become denser than the underlying mantle and the cooler, sinking plate pulls the rest of the warmer plate along behind it.

INDIA’S VULNERABILITY TOWARDS EARTHQUAKES

India is prone to earthquakes due to its geographical location and tectonic activity. India is situated on the Indian Plate, which is moving northward and colliding with the Eurasian Plate. The interaction between these two plates causes frequent earthquakes in the region. Here are some major earthquake-prone zones in India:

• Himalayan Region: The Himalayan region is one of the most seismically active zones in India. The collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates causes frequent earthquakes in this region. The Himalayan region comprises several states, including Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Northeastern Region: The northeastern region of India is also seismically active due to its location on the boundary of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The region comprises states such as Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Meghalaya.
• Central India: Central India is also prone to earthquakes, although it experiences fewer earthquakes compared to the Himalayan and northeastern regions. The region includes states such as Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.
• Western India: The western region of India is also seismically active, primarily due to its proximity to the Arabian Sea. The region includes states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also prone to earthquakes due to their location on the boundary of the Indian and Burmese plates.

INDIA’S PREPAREDNESS FOR EARTHQUAKES

Nearly 58 per cent of the Indian landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes and the concerns that have been raised by the court need a policy response. The Indian government has taken several steps to tackle earthquakes in India. The government’s primary focus has been on earthquake preparedness, which includes building codes and guidelines, disaster management plans, and public awareness campaigns. Here are some of the steps taken by the government for tackling earthquakes in India:

• Building Codes and Guidelines: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has developed codes and guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction in India. These codes and guidelines provide a framework for safe and earthquake-resistant building design and construction.
• Disaster Management Plans: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has developed disaster management plans to tackle earthquakes in India. The plans include measures for early warning systems, search and rescue operations, medical aid, and relief and rehabilitation efforts.
• Public Awareness Campaigns: The government has launched several public awareness campaigns to educate people about earthquake safety and preparedness. The campaigns include disseminating information on earthquake-resistant construction, emergency preparedness, and evacuation procedures.
• Seismic Monitoring: The government has established a network of seismic monitoring stations across the country to monitor seismic activity and provide early warning systems. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) operates these monitoring stations.
• Research and Development: The government has invested in research and development to improve earthquake-resistant construction techniques and materials. The Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) and the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) are some of the institutions working on earthquake-related research and development.
• International Collaboration: The Indian government has collaborated with international organizations, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), to improve earthquake preparedness and response in the country.

Despite the efforts made by the Indian government to tackle earthquakes, there are several challenges that hinder effective earthquake management and response in the country.

CHALLENGES IN INDIA’S EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS

Currently, India’s policy on earthquake preparedness operates primarily at the scale of structural details. Guided by the National Building Codes, this includes specifying dimensions of the structural members, columns, beams, etc. and details of the reinforcements that join these elements together.

• National Building Code ignores the buildings that were constructed before such codes were published in 1962. Such buildings form a large part of our cities.
• Further, it assumes infallibility in the processes of enforcement relying only on penalization and illegalities.
• It treats earthquakes as a problem of individual buildings as if they exist and behave in complete isolation from their urban context.

OTHER INHERENT CHALLENGES FOR TACKLING EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA

• Population Density: India is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, and this poses a significant challenge for earthquake management. The high population density makes it difficult to evacuate people in the event of an earthquake, and it also puts a strain on relief and rehabilitation efforts.
• Informal Construction: A significant percentage of buildings in India are constructed informally, without following proper building codes and guidelines. These buildings are often vulnerable to earthquakes and can cause significant damage and casualties.
• Limited Resources: India is a developing country, and it often lacks the resources and infrastructure required for effective earthquake management. This includes inadequate funding for research and development, limited equipment and resources for search and rescue operations, and insufficient medical facilities for emergency treatment.
• Geological Diversity: India has a diverse geological makeup, which makes it challenging to predict earthquake activity accurately. Different regions in the country have different seismic histories, and this requires tailored earthquake management strategies.
• Lack of Awareness: Despite the public awareness campaigns by the government, many people in India are still unaware of earthquake safety and preparedness measures. This lack of awareness can lead to confusion and panic during an earthquake, making it challenging to implement effective response strategies.

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has developed guidelines for earthquakes in India. These guidelines provide a framework for earthquake management and response, including measures for early warning systems, search and rescue operations, medical aid, and relief and rehabilitation efforts. Here are some of the key NDMA guidelines for earthquakes in India:

• Early Warning Systems: The NDMA recommends the development of early warning systems to provide advance notice of earthquakes. These systems can help authorities to initiate response measures and reduce the impact of earthquakes.
• Building Codes and Guidelines: The NDMA recommends the implementation of building codes and guidelines developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for earthquake-resistant construction. The guidelines provide a framework for safe and earthquake-resistant building design and construction.
• Search and Rescue Operations: The NDMA recommends the establishment of a trained search and rescue team to carry out rescue operations in the event of an earthquake. The team should be equipped with appropriate equipment, including search cameras, rescue tools, and communication devices.
• Medical Aid: The NDMA recommends the establishment of medical facilities to provide emergency treatment to earthquake victims. These facilities should be equipped with essential medical equipment and supplies and should be staffed by trained medical personnel.
• Relief and Rehabilitation: The NDMA recommends the establishment of relief camps to provide shelter, food, and other essentials to earthquake victims. The camps should be located in safe areas and should be adequately equipped to meet the needs of the victims.
• Public Awareness: The NDMA recommends the implementation of public awareness campaigns to educate people about earthquake safety and preparedness. The campaigns should include disseminating information on earthquake-resistant construction, emergency preparedness, and evacuation procedures.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has developed codes and guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction to mitigate the effects of earthquakes and reduce the risk of casualties and property damage. Here are some preparatory steps and rules for earthquake preparedness in building construction in India:

• Site Selection: The first step in earthquake-resistant construction is selecting a site with low seismic activity. The Geological Survey of India provides maps that highlight seismic zones and help identify areas with high seismic activity.
• Foundation: The foundation is the most critical part of a building, and it should be designed to withstand the forces generated during an earthquake. The foundation should be dug deep enough to reach the hard strata and be wide enough to distribute the load evenly.
• Building Materials: The use of good quality building materials is essential for earthquake-resistant construction. The materials should be able to withstand the forces generated during an earthquake. Bricks, concrete blocks, and reinforced concrete are commonly used building materials for earthquake-resistant construction.
• Building Design: The building design should be such that it can resist the forces generated during an earthquake. The design should incorporate earthquake-resistant features such as cross-bracing, shear walls, and ductile detailing.
• Building Height: The height of a building is a crucial factor in earthquake-resistant construction. The taller a building, the greater the forces it will experience during an earthquake. As a result, high-rise buildings need to be designed with more earthquake-resistant features.
• Non-structural Components: Non-structural components such as glass facades, partition walls, and false ceilings are vulnerable to damage during earthquakes. These components should be designed to withstand the forces generated during an earthquake.
• Regular Maintenance: Regular maintenance of the building is essential for earthquake-resistant construction. Cracks, fissures, and other signs of damage should be addressed promptly.

In addition to these steps, there are specific building codes and guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction in India. The Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads for Buildings and Structures (IS 1893) provides guidelines for earthquake-resistant design and construction of buildings.

BOTTOMLINE:

Policy makers need to understand that buildings exist in clusters and in the event of an earthquake, behave as a system. They collapse on nearby buildings and on the abutting streets damaging buildings that might have otherwise survived and blocking evacuation routes. Earthquake preparedness, therefore, needs to act at the scale of building details as well as that of cities. Moreover, we must think about it in the realm of policy and not just legal enforcement.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Retrofitting Buildings to Seismic Codes:
  • Aim: To create a system of tax-based or development rights-based incentives for retrofitting one’s building up to seismic codes.
  • Such a system of incentives will enable the growth of an industry around retrofitting and will generate a body of well-trained professionals and competent organisations.
• Better enforcement of seismic codes:
  • Ensuring better enforcement of seismic codes through step such as the National Retrofitting Programme launched in 2014.
  • Under the programme, the Reserve Bank of India directed banks to deny loans for any building activity that does not meet the standards of earthquake-resistant design.
• Care contemplation of construction projects:
  • For example, experts from different organisations including the Geological Survey of India, IIT Roorkee, are studying the cause of the sinking, and many geologists have blamed NTPC’s Tapovan-Vishnugad hydroelectric power project for the current disaster.
• Strict policy formulation:
  • After the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, the Gujarat government immediately adapted new town planning schemes that widened roads and created routes for evacuation and relief work.
  • Turkish government, in denial of its own responsibility, has arrested contractors for building unsafe buildings.
• Programmes like the ongoing Urban 20 meetings are an excellent opportunity for international knowledge exchange on earthquake preparedness. Further, India should use its G20 presidentship to arouse global attention towards this issue so as to generate collective response measures.

CASE STUDIES

JAPAN

• It has invested heavily in technological measures to mitigate the damage from the frequent earthquakes that it experiences.
• Skyscrapers are built with counterweights and other high-tech provisions to minimise the impact of tremors.
• Small houses are built on flexible foundations and public infrastructure is integrated with automated triggers that cut power, gas, and water lines during earthquakes.
• This has been a result of cultivating an industry around earthquake mitigation and fostering expertise.

SAN FRANCISCO

• It was devastated by an earthquake in April 1906.
• San Francisco implemented policy changes similar to Japan’s.
• The next major earthquake hit in 1989, the city recorded just 63 casualties compared to more than 3,000 deaths in 1906.

THE CONCLUSION: Addressing the issue of earthquakes in India requires a sustained effort from the government, private sector, and civil society. Strengthening building codes and guidelines, establishing early warning systems, developing search and rescue capabilities, establishing medical aid and relief and rehabilitation facilities, and public awareness campaigns are some of the key steps that can be taken to improve earthquake management and response in the country.

GEOGRAPHY

1. WHAT ARE GEOMAGNETIC STORMS?

TAGS: PRELIMS- GS-I-GEOGRAPHY

 THE CONTEXT:  Recently, a Geomagnetic Storm was caused by a solar wind that passed through a gap created in the Earth’s magnetic field.

THE EXPLANATIONS:

About Geomagnetic Storms:

• A geomagnetic storm is a major disturbance of Earth’s magnetosphere.
• These storms result from variations in the solar wind that produces significant changes in the currents, plasmas, and fields in Earth’s magnetosphere.
• The solar wind conditions that are effective for creating geomagnetic storms are sustained (for several hours) periods of the high-speed solar wind and a southward-directed solar wind magnetic field (opposite the direction of Earth’s field) at the dayside of the magnetosphere.
• The largest such storms are associated with solar coronal mass ejections (CMEs), where a billion tons or so of plasma from the sun, with its embedded magnetic field, arrives at Earth.

Effects:

• These storms can heat the ionosphere, causing beautiful auroras on Earth.
• Because the ionosphere is heated and distorted during storms, long-range radio communication that relies on sub-ionospheric reflection gets affected.
• Ionospheric expansion due to these storms can increase satellite drag and make their orbits difficult to control.
• Satellite electronics can be damaged through the build-up and discharge of static-electric charges.
• It can disrupt global navigation systems.
• It can create harmful geomagnetic-induced currents (GICs) in the power grid and pipelines.

What is a Solar wind?

• It is a stream of energized, charged particles, primarily electrons and protons, flowing outward from the Sun through the solar system at speeds as high as 900 km/s and a temperature of 1 million degrees (Celsius).
• It is made of plasma.
• When the solar wind reaches Earth, it sends a flurry of charged particles toward the magnetosphere, along Earth’s magnetic field lines, towards the poles.

What are Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)?

• CMEs are large expulsions of plasma and magnetic field from the Sun’s corona that propagates outward into interplanetary space.
• The blast of a CME carries about a billion tons of material out from the Sun at very high speeds of hundreds of kilometers per second.

INDIAN POLITY

2. DOCTRINE OF NECESSITY

TAGS: PRELIMS- GS-II-POLITY

CONTEXT: Recently, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) Invoked the “doctrine of necessity” to clear six deals involving mergers & acquisitions (M&A) and investment proposals.

THE EXPLANATION:

About Doctrine of necessity:

• It allows the legal authorities to carry out certain activities which are not permitted in the normal course.
• This term is used to describe a principle of constitutional law, where in an emergency or an exigent circumstance, a state may legally act which in other circumstances is deemed to be illegal.
• The term was first used in 1954 in a controversial judgment in Pakistan.
• The Doctrine of Necessity was changed to the Doctrine of Absolute Necessity in the case of “Election Commission of India v. Dr. Subramaniam Swamy”
• Outcome: This doctrine shall be used only in case of absolute necessity.
• It acts as a defense against violating the law making the decision valid and not biased.
• Doctrine of necessity acts as an exception to ‘Nemo judex in causa sua’, where an authority is disqualified on the grounds of a biased decision.

Evolution of the Doctrine of Necessity

• The term Doctrine of Necessity is a term used to describe the basis on which administrative actions by administrative authority, which are designed to restore order, are found to be constitutional. The maxim on which the doctrine is based originated in the writings of the medieval jurist Henry de Bracton, and similar justifications for this kind of administrative action have been advanced by more recent legal authorities, including William Blackstone.
• In modern times, the term was first used in a controversial 1954 judgment in which Pakistani Chief Justice Muhammad Munir validated the extra-constitutional use of emergency powers by Governor General, Ghulam Mohammad. In his judgment, the Chief Justice cited Bracton’s maxim, ‘that which is otherwise not lawful is made lawful by necessity’, thereby providing the label that would come to be attached to the judgment and the doctrine that it was establishing.

ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

3. INDIAN PANGOLIN

TAGS: PRELIMS- GS-III-ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: International non-profit organization TRAFFIC recently reported that 1,203 pangolins had been found in illegal wildlife trade in India from 2018 to 2022.

THE EXPLANATION:

About Indian Pangolin:

• The Indian pangolin, also called thick-tailed pangolin and scaly anteater is native to the Indian subcontinent.
• It is one of the eight species of pangolins found.
• They are one of the most trafficked mammals in the world, despite an international ban on their trade.
• Scientific name: Manis crassicaudata
• Distribution: It lives in India (south of the Himalayas), Bangladesh, Southern Nepal, Sri Lanka, and small parts of Pakistan.
• Habitat: It occurs in tropical forests, open land, grasslands, and degraded habitat, including in close proximity to villages.

Features:

• Like other pangolins, it has large, overlapping scales on its body, which act as armor.
• The Indian pangolin’s armor is amongst the most effective in the mammalian world. It has about 13 rows of moveable sharp scales covering its body, which are shed periodically.
• The colour of its scales varies depending on the colour of the earth in its surroundings.
• It can also curl itself into a ball as self-defense against predators.
• It is an insectivore feeding on ants and termites.
• It is nocturnal and rests in deep burrows during the day.

Conservation status:

• IUCN Red List: Endangered
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I
• CITES: Appendix I

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

4. FINDER DEVICE

TAGS: PRELIMS- GS-III-DISASTER MANAGEMENT

THE CONTEXT: NASA has developed a technology that can remotely detect the tiniest motions of the body that will be used by disaster relief teams in earthquake-stricken Turkey.

THE EXPLANATION:

About FINDER device:

• The devices, called FINDERs( Finding Individuals for Disaster Emergency Response), use microwave radar sensors to find survivors underneath the rubble.
• It was designed to detect a human heartbeat buried beneath 30 feet of rubble.
• The radar illuminates the rubble pile and receives reflections back from a disaster site, including the victim.
• FINDER looks for changes in the reflection that indicate movement and then checks to see if those movements can be attributed to human heartbeats and respirations.
• It can distinguish human respiration from animals or mechanical movements.

PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE

5. WHAT IS YAKSHAGANA?

TAGS: PRELIMS- GS-I-ART AND CULTURE

THE CONTEXT: The Prime Minister of India has expressed deep grief over the demise of noted Yakshagana playback singer, Shri Balipa Narayana Bhagavatha.

THE EXPLANATION:

About Yakshagana:

• Yakshagana is a traditional folk dance form popular in Coastal Karnataka
• It is a rare combination of dance, music, song, scholarly dialogues and colourful costumes.
• Traditionally, men portray all roles, including the female ones, though women are now part of Yakshagana troupes.
• A typical troupe consists of 15 to 20 actors and a Bhagavatha, who is the master of ceremonies and the main storyteller.

What are the elements of Yakshagana?

• The Act: Each performance typically focuses on a small sub-story (known as ‘Prasanga’) from ancient Hindu epics of Ramayana or Mahabharata. The show consists of both stage performances by talented artists and commentary (performed by the lead singer or Bhagavatha) accompanied by traditional music.
• The Music: Musical instruments used in Yakshagana include Chande (drums), Harmonium, Maddale, Taala (mini metal clappers) and flute among others.
• The Dress: Costumes used in Yakshagana are very unique and elaborate. Large size headgear, coloured faces, elaborate costumes all over the body and musical beads on the legs (Gejje).

GOVERNANCE

1. WHAT IS NO FLY LIST?

TAGS: PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE- GS-II-GOVERNANCE

THE CONTEXT: According to the Ministry of Civil Aviation, In last 1 year, a total of 63 passengers have been placed in “No Fly List” for such period, as recommended by the airline’s Internal Committee constituted in accordance with Civil Aviation Requirements (CAR). These include 02 (two) incidents of urinating that have come to the notice of Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).

THE EXPLANATION:

What are the rules for putting a flier on the no-fly list?

• In 2017, the government issued rules for preventing disruptive behaviour by air travellers and laid down guidelines for a no-fly list. As per the rules, a complaint of unruly behaviour needs to be filed by the pilot-in-command, and this is to be probed by an internal committee to be set up by the airline.
• During the period of pendency of the inquiry, the rules empower the concerned airline to impose a ban on the passenger. The committee is to decide the matter within 30 days, and also specify the ban duration.
• The rules define three categories of unruly behaviour: Level 1 refers to behaviour that is verbally unruly, and calls for debarment up to three months; Level 2 indicates physical unruliness and can lead to the passenger being debarred from flying for up to six months; Level 3 indicates life-threatening behaviour for which the debarment would be for a minimum of two years.

Why is there a no-fly list?

• The Civil Aviation Requirements issued by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) note that unruly behaviour on board aircraft has been declared an offence and is a punishable act. Even one unruly passenger can jeopardise safety on board. The government kick-started the process of developing these rules after an incident involving then Shiv Sena MP Ravindra Gaikwad assaulting an Air India staffer on a flight back in 2017.
• Subsequently, a clutch of airlines banned Gaikwad from travelling on their flights; this was in effect for two weeks. The government came out with the no-fly list in September that year.

How do other countries manage no-fly lists?

• India is one of the few countries where airlines have been empowered to straight away ban a person from taking their flights. In aviation markets like the US or Canada, the no-fly list is more oriented to be a terror-watch program.
• In the US, the no-fly list had less than 20 people prior to 9/11, but sky-rocketed to thousands following the attacks. Cases of disruption with unruly behaviour, however, has got people on the no-fly list in the US. In 2016, US-based Delta Airlines banned a passenger for life after he was caught on video shouting profane political comments on its flight.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

2. NISAR MISSION

TAGS: PRELIMS- GS-III- SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: NASA-ISRO partnership’s satellite all set to arrive in India,Once launched into space, NISAR will provide critical information on Earth’s crust, ice sheets, and ecosystems, helping researchers better understand the causes and consequences of land surface changes.

THE EXPLANATION:

• Jointly developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), an Earth-observation satellite, called NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar), got a send-off ceremony at the American space agency’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Southern California on (February 3)2023.
• The SUV-size satellite will be shipped to India in a special cargo container flight later this month for a possible launch in 2024 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Andhra Pradesh.

What is NISAR?

• NISAR has been built by space agencies of the US and India under a partnership agreement signed in 2014. The 2,800 kilograms satellite consists of both L-band and S-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) instruments, which makes it a dual-frequency imaging radar satellite.
• While NASA has provided the L-band radar, GPS, a high-capacity solid-state recorder to store data, and a payload data subsystem, ISRO has provided the S-band radar, the GSLV launch system and spacecraft.
• According to NASA, another important component of the satellite is its large 39-foot stationary antenna reflector. Made of a gold-plated wire mesh, the reflector will be used to focus “the radar signals emitted and received by the upward-facing feed on the instrument structure”.

What is the mission?

• Once launched into space, NISAR will observe subtle changes in Earth’s surfaces, helping researchers better understand the causes and consequences of such phenomena. It will spot warning signs of natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and landslides. The satellite will also measure groundwater levels, track flow rates of glaciers and ice sheets, and monitor the planet’s forest and agricultural regions, which can improve our understanding of carbon exchange.
• By using synthetic aperture radar (SAR), NISAR will produce high-resolution images. SAR is capable of penetrating clouds and can collect data day and night regardless of the weather conditions.
• According to NASA, “the instrument’s imaging swath — the width of the strip of data collected along the length of the orbit track — is greater than 150 miles (240 kilometres), which allows it to image the entire Earth in 12 days.”

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

3. THE WORLD’S DEADLIEST EARTHQUAKES SINCE 2000

TAGS: PRELIMS & GS-III DISASTER MANAGEMENT

THE CONTEXT: Turkey has experienced powerful earthquakes since the early hours of 6th February 2023, with the first one, a quake of magnitude 7.8, being described as the strongest the country has experienced in over a century.

THE EXPLANATION:

• A magnitude 7.8 earthquake shook Turkey and Syria killing more than 3,400 people in the two countries.
• The death toll is expected to rise as rescuers search through the frigid night.
• The US Geological Survey (USGS) said while the quake was centred about 33 km from Gaziantep, around 18 km deep, its effect was felt across West Asia, Northern Africa and South Eastern Europe with residents of Lebanon, Cyprus, Greece, Israel and Egypt also reporting tremors.
• India is among the 45 countries, which have so far offered assistance to Turkey. It’s sending search and rescue teams of the National Disaster Relief Force (NDRF) and medical teams along with relief material to the West Asian nation.

What is an earthquake?

• An earthquake is an intense shaking of the ground caused by movement under the earth’s surface. It happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another, according to USGS. This releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which spreads through the earth and cause the shaking of the ground.

What exactly causes earthquakes?

• The earth’s outermost surface, crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates. The edges of the plates are called plate boundaries, which are made up of faults. The tectonic plates constantly move at a slow pace, sliding past one another and bumping into each other.
• As the edges of the plates are quite rough, they get stuck with one another while the rest of the plate keeps moving. Earthquake occurs when the plate has moved far enough and the edges unstick on one of the faults.

PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE

4. THIS WORD MEANS: NORTH STAR

TAGS:PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE

THE CONTEXT: Recently, Vice President said Parliament is the “North Star” of democracy, “a place of discussion and deliberation to realise the aspirations and dreams of the people”.

THE EXPLANATION:

In January 2023, Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud had described the basic structure of the Constitution, laid down by the Supreme Court in the 1973 Kesavananda Bharati judgment, as the “North Star” that “guides and gives certain direction to the interpreters and implementers of the Constitution when the path ahead is convoluted”.
Guide to navigation

• Polaris, known as the North Star or Pole Star, is a very bright star — around 2,500 times more luminous than the Sun. It is part of the constellation Ursa Minor, and is around 323 light years away from the Earth.
• Since Polaris is less than 1° away from the north celestial pole, almost in direct line with the Earth’s rotational axis, it appears to sit motionless in the northern sky, with all the other stars appearing to rotate around it.
• Its position and brightness have allowed humans to use it for navigation since late antiquity. Simply the elevation of the star above the horizon gives the approximate latitude of the observer. In the northern hemisphere, if you can spot Polaris, you can tell the north — and by extension, the other three directions as well. Upon crossing the equator to the south, however, the North Star is lost over the horizon, and hence stops being a useful navigational aid.

5. A NEW KIND OF ICE: ‘AMORPHOUS’ SOLID, WATER ‘FROZEN IN TIME’

TAGS: PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE

THE CONTEXT: Scientists have created a new type of ice that matches the density and structure of water, perhaps opening a door to studying water’s mysterious properties.

THE EXPLANATION:

• The ice is called medium-density amorphous ice. Theshook regular ice in a small container with centimetre-wide stainless-steel balls at temperatures of (–) 200 °C to produce the variant, which has never been seen before. The ice appeared as a white granular powder that stuck to the metal balls.
• Normally, when water freezes, it crystallizes and its molecules are arranged into the familiar hexagonal, solid structure that we call ice. Ice is less dense than its liquid form — an unusual property for a crystal. Depending on conditions such as pressure and the speed of freezing, water can also solidify in any of two dozen other regular arrangements. Amorphous ice is different: it has no such order.
• If confirmed, the new form of ice could enable studies of water in a manner that was not possible before.

THE CONTEXT: Joshimath located on the slopes of the Himalayas is the gateway to famous pilgrimage sites like Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib is facing land subsidence and it is feared that not only this town, but many settlements around could be in danger of being wiped out. People are being evacuated and governments are looking desperately for safe ground where they could be shifted temporarily. In this context, let’s analyse how this disaster took place, the reasons behind it, and what should be done to avoid worsening the situation.

DETAILS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CALAMITY

WHAT IS HAPPENING IN JOSHIMATH?

• The warnings about the dangers in Joshimath town have been repeatedly echoed for several years and the cracks started appearing long back.
• The problem began 14-15 months back in November 2021, when residents began complaining of the cracks in areas like Gandhinagar, Suneel, Manohar Bagh, Singdhar and Marwari.
• Joshimath with 25,000 residents, has around 4,500 buildings spread over 2.5 sq km is one of the six tehsils (blocks) in Uttarakhand’s Chamoli district. It was all quiet and business as usual in the city until the last few months of 2022 when forces of nature began to push back, and residents began to protest.
• In midnight of January 2 and 3, 2023 residents of the town woke up to see cracks in several houses at Singhdhar in the Joshimath town of Uttarakhand and cracks in their roads had increased in size and with an escalated subsidence rate, massive cracks appeared in around 678 identified houses, and others are to follow.
• Secretary of Disaster Management told that new cracks had developed, and new water sources have emerged in places. More than 800 buildings have developed cracks, and authorities have been demolishing the unsafe ones. However, no lives were lost in these incidents.
• A team from Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee has started to check the land subsidence in Joshimath by conducting a door-to-door survey of the condition and has also installed a gauge meter at houses where severe cracks have been reported.
• CP Rajendran, a geoscientist, warned that subsidence will continue until a new lower level is reached.

FINDINGS BY ISRO

• Satellite images of Joshimath released by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) show that the Himalayan town sank at a rapid pace of 5.4 cm in just 12 days between December 27 2022 and January 8, 2023 triggered by possible subsidence.
• Even a preliminary report by ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), which has since been taken off its website, said the land subsidence was slow between April and November 2022, during which Joshimath had sunk by 8.9 cm.

IMMEDIATE RESPONSE BY UTTARAKHAND AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

RESPONSE BY UTTARAKHAND GOVERNMENT

●        Chief Minister of Uttarakhand state said that the subsidence affected around 25% of the town’s area.

●        The State Cabinet approved an amount of Rs 45 crore as relief for the affected families.

●        Cabinet cleared a proposal to waive the electricity bill of all those affected for six months starting from November 2022, besides approving a proposal for providing employment under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) to two members of each of the affected families.

●        Affected people will be provided with Rs 950 daily for accommodation and Rs 450 shall be given for food.

●        The cabinet also cleared a proposal to prepare a final package proposal and send the same to the union government within a week.

RESPONSE BY CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

●        The Central Government declared Joshimath as a ”landslide-subsidence zone” and asked experts to prepare short and long-term plans on what to do.

●        The cabinet approved the proposal for a geological survey to be conducted in the affected areas. Also, for assessing carrying capacity in hill stations in different phases.

●        The Prime Minister’s Office said the safety of the people is the priority and asked the state government to establish clear and continuous communication with the residents.

WHY IS JOSHIMATH SINKING?

Accelerated anthropogenic activities and climate change pose a grave danger to the Himalayan ecosystem. There are both causes, natural and human-made as follows:

GEOGRAPHICAL PHYSIOLOGY

●        The Himalayas are a very fragile ecosystem. Most parts of Uttarakhand are either located in seismic zone V or IV, prone to earthquakes.

●        Joshimath was always vulnerable to earthquakes as the region falls in seismic zone V.

●        The town sits on the intersection of the Main Central Thrust 1, 2, and 3, the intra-crustal fault lines, where the Indian Plate has been pushed under the Eurasian Plate along the Himalayas.

LAND SUBSIDENCE

●        Joshimath is hit by a geological phenomenon known as land subsidence, which is a gradual settling, or sinking of the surface due to the removal of water, oil, natural gas, or mineral resources from the ground.

●        According to the US-based National Ocean Services, subsidence is also triggered by natural events such as earthquakes, soil compaction, erosion, sinkhole formation, and an infusion of water to fine soils.

●        The land subsidence was also triggered by an incessant spell of rain in the region in the last few years, which deposited more water on the surface.

CLIMATE CHANGE

●        Climate change is further worsening the matter, with more extreme weather events as the temperature of Uttarakhand will increase by more than 2-degree Celsius.

●        The way climate change is manifesting in some of the hill states of India is unprecedented. For example, 2021 and 2022 have been years of disaster for Uttarakhand as Chamoli disaster (2021) caused by retreating Himalayan glaciers and associated melt along with unstable slopes triggered landslides by rainfall during monsoon or by induced seismicity in the region.

DRAINAGE ISSUE

●        Joshimath does not have a proper drainage system, so “water percolation has decreased the cohesive strength of the rocks over time. This has resulted in landslides, triggering cracks in the houses.

●        Also, the natural drainage system got blocked due to the NTPC’s Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro project in Chamoli.

WEAKENING OF SOIL

●        Joshimath was built on the debris of a landslide triggered by an earthquake and is located in a tremor-prone zone. It frequently witnesses landslides, which have weakened the soil.

●        Due to the unavailability of solid rocks underneath, the water seeped into the soil and loosened it from within.

●        With the top surface of the soil already gone due to intense construction, the region has remained on the edge.

UNSTABLE FOUNDATION

●        Every structure needs a strong foundation, but Joshimath, has none as it was built on the rocks settling down which got stabilized and are sitting on a glacial moraine and thus is not suitable for construction.

●        The debris has angular sediments, which are worse than river-deposited sediments. These sediments have voids, making them extremely unstable, geologically.

●        When burdened with heavy construction in the region, this unstable foundation began caving by centimetres.

RAMPANT CONSTRUCTION

●        In the last several decades a boom in construction has made this region extremely vulnerable and susceptible to deformation.

●        Back in 1976, a government report had called for restrictions on heavy construction work in Joshimath, saying that it should only be allowed after examining the “load-bearing capacity of the soil”.

●        Rampant construction, especially of projects like roads and dams, that use explosives, drilling and extensive digging, have weakened the slopes.

●        Projects like Chardham and Hydropower projects Tapovan are a few examples.

• Joshimath is a classic case of all these factors working together to create a recipe for disaster.
• The geological developments underway in Joshimath should be a case study for every town planner working in the hills. The factors at play in Joshimath are also found in other cities such as Nainital, Champawat, and Uttarkashi.

RELATED STUDIES/EXPERT’S VIEW

●        Dehradun-based Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology: Its report points out that Joshimath – a town 2,000 metres above sea level – has always been vulnerable because it sits atop the debris of an old landslide. This has failed to stop a building spree in recent years, with poorly planned construction destabilising the soil and choking underground water channels, so that water has accumulated under the foundations. It predicted that there might be eventual collapse of the entire city if drainage system not well maintained and wastewater from days usage flows through improper drains.

●        Mishra Committee, 1976: It points out that the township of Joshimath falls in zone V of the seismic zonation map of India and is particularly vulnerable to landslides and is at the highest risk zone for an earthquake.

●        Geologist Navin Juyal as a member of the supreme court-appointed high-powered committee reviewed char dham project, suggested that the road must not be built unless a geotechnical feasibility study is done which was allowed for construction without scientific reports.

●        Uttarakhand State Disaster Management Authority (USDMA): It published a report that mainly blamed ill-planned construction in the town as an important reason behind land sinking. The report also pointed out that the inadequate drainage and wastewater disposal systems had exacerbated the problem.

ROAD PROJECTS: CHAR DHAM YATRA AND HELANG-MARWARI BYPASS ROAD

●        Federal government’s Char Dham road project which aims to widen existing roads connecting four Hindu pilgrimage sites is being blamed by experts for rapid rise in construction activities in the area.

●        Under-construction 6-km-long Helang-Marwari bypass road, built by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), falls under the contentious 825 km Char Dham road expansion project in Uttarakhand, is yet another project that is believed to have exacerbated the problem.

●        The widening of the road was not just a big contributor, but also led to more and more hotels springing up in and around Joshimath.

●        Dr. Bahadur Singh Kotila of Kumaon University said that the roads in the geologically sensitive region should have been seven metres wide, but the government widened the roads to 12 metres, which led to more and more cleaning of the hills.

●        This made the already ecologically sensitive region highly vulnerable to landslides as the top layer was cleaned for the road construction.

●        Tunnelling for Char Dham railways is envisaged at a massive scale, and without environmental impact assessment which are mandated steps for damage control, led to disasters.

HYDROPOWER PROJECT TAPOVAN VISHNUGAD

●        Ongoing Tapovan Vishnugad hydro by government owned NTPC Limited is of 4×130 megawatt is tunnelling through the fragile ecosystem leading to damage to the historic, cultural town of Joshimath.

●        This is a run-of-the-river electricity generation project that entails boring a 12-kilometre tunnel through the hillside and channeling the water of the Dhauli Ganga river through the tunnel to generate electricity.

●        The tunnel of Tapovan-Vishnugad hydel project is located right beneath Joshimath. Big boring machines were brought for its construction which have been stuck in the ground for the past two decades. Tons of explosives are used on a daily basis for the tunnel’s construction.

●        A tunnel boring machine employed for excavating it punctured a water bearing strata some 3km inward left bank of alaknanda and the aquifer discharge was about 60-70 million liters daily.

●        NTPC has denied allegations, saying that the tunnel does not pass under Joshimath town and should not be considered responsible for the disaster. But it does pass through the same aquifer that is below Joshimath.

IMPACT OF THE LAND SUBSIDENCE

The problem of land subsidence is neither new, nor sudden. It emerged decades ago, after which a committee, the MC Mishra Committee, was formed in 1976 to assess the reasons behind it. It is the oldest report exploring land subsidence in Joshimath, warned against excavating the slopes, and removing boulders by digging or using explosives.

Loss of Lives: Land subsidence can lead to irreversible loss of lives and cause loss of human resource with psychological damage.

• Loss of Livelihoods: Because of land subsidence there is loss of livelihoods of a major population, causing economic pressure on the society and country. Also, as locals depend on tourism for their economy which has been affected by disaster will impact their livelihoods.
• Damage of Property and Infrastructure: The effects of land subsidence can be settlement of the upper clay layer leading to damage of infrastructure (roads, bridges) and flooding due to ineffective drainage systems of the city.

Apart from direct change, there are few indirect impacts as follows:

• Change in land gradient: It can impact drainage systems and sewer lines that follow underground.
• Change in gradient of streams or drains: There can be indirect effects such as a change in gradient of streams or drains which is permanent and cannot be reversed.
• Cause earthquake: The lines of weakness in the layers can also be activated and this may cause earthquakes in the area.

CHALLENGES RELATED TO THE CALAMITY

• Infrastructure issues: Rampant infrastructure development happening in a fragile ecosystem like Himalayas is another challenge that is not happening according to prescribed scientific measures and its regulation is a major task.
• Electricity issue: With the stalling of hydro project Tapovan, there will be another issue of providing electricity to the locals and can cause major disruption in day-to-day activities of people’s lives.
• Identification of vulnerable people: There is a major challenge related to rehabilitation of the affected people by calamity is identification of vulnerable people as there is no such proper survey or data that has been taken so far.
• Tourism: There are a number of tourists visiting the Chardham and places as bugyals, heritage sites as wedding destinations which need to be regulated so that it does not put pressure on the hilly areas.
• Problem of sustainable development: Balancing between development activities while sustaining the environment is a major challenge for the government and society.
• Security issues: The location of Indo China border strategic road to Indo Tibetan border is another major challenge while addressing the issue.

THE WAY FORWARD

• REGULATION OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES: Regulation of construction activities falls on central and state governments such as stalling of NTPC projects and Chardham all-weather road needs immediate action.
• COMPENSATION AND REHABILITATION: There is immediate need for adequate compensation and rehabilitation to all affected people within a set time frame that includes compensation, food, shelter and other basic facilities and participation of local representatives.
• DECLARE ESZ: As a first step to mitigating future hazards, the upper catchment of the rivers from the glacier lines must be declared as Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) on the same lines as Bhagirathi ESZ and prohibit massive projects, regulate others and promote conservation project.
• MANAGING DRAINAGE SYSTEM: There is a need to construct proper drainage and sewage systems and install concrete cement blocks to check erosion.
• STRONG CLIMATE ACTION: There is a need to form some strong rules and regulations and forced and timely implementation of these rules.
• SUSTAINABLE TOURISM: A report titled ‘Uttarakhand Action Plan for Climate Change 2020’ states that regulation of tourism is an essential next step and sustainable tourism is a must for preserving the ecosystem.
• COLLABORATION AND CONSULTATION: There is a need for collaboration and consultation among Government, civil bodies, and citizens to set out parameters such as rock strength assessment which are needed for developing new cities.

THE CONCLUSION: Nature has its own way of claiming its own recourse and Joshimath calamity is an example in this case. To avoid such more calamity there is a need for balance between environment and development projects by streamlining the process of environment and forest clearances which can be positive for the surroundings in terms of groundwater recharge, flourishing of flora and fauna and mitigation of such disasters.

MAINS QUESTIONS

1. Joshimath disaster can be an eye-opener for the unsustainable development in hilly areas. Analyse.
2. Explain the causes and impacts of land subsidence. How climate change and anthropogenic activities are reinforcing it.