THE CONTEXT:
April 1, 2025, marks the 75th anniversary of establishing diplomatic relations between India and China (1950). As two of the world’s largest and fastest-growing economies, their bilateral ties significantly influence regional and global geopolitics. The relationship has continuously evolved despite periodic tensions, showcasing resilience and flexibility.
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND FOUNDATIONS:
- Establishment and Early Phase (1950-1962): The People’s Republic of China was established on October 1, 1949, and India became the first non-communist country to establish diplomatic relations with China on April 1, 1950. Both countries jointly propounded the Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) in 1954, emphasizing mutual respect for sovereignty and non-interference in each other’s internal affairs. This period marked friendly exchanges symbolized by the “Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai” spirit.
- Period of Estrangement (1962-1988): The 1962 Sino-Indian Border War marked a significant setback in bilateral relations, creating deep mistrust that continues to influence contemporary dynamics. For nearly two decades afterward, diplomatic engagement remained minimal, with both countries reassessing their strategic priorities during the Cold War period.
- Normalization Process (1988-2000): Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s historic visit to China in 1988 initiated the normalization process, with both sides agreeing to “look forward” despite unresolved border issues. This pragmatic approach laid the foundation for re-engagement and established dialogue mechanisms to address contentious issues while promoting cooperation in non-controversial areas.
MULTI-DIMENSIONAL FRAMEWORK OF BILATERAL RELATIONS
- Strategic and Political Dimensions: Following President Xi Jinping’s state visit to India in 2014, the relationship evolved from a strategic and cooperative partnership for peace and prosperity to a closer developmental partnership. High-level summits and informal meetings between leaders have provided strategic guidance at critical junctures. The two leaders met in Kazan in October 2024, marking a renewed effort to address bilateral issues.
- Economic and Trade Relations: Bilateral trade has witnessed exponential growth from less than $3 billion in 2000 to $138.5 billion in 2024. In the first two months of 2025 alone, bilateral trade reached $23.6 billion. China overtook the United States as India’s largest trading partner in 2024, highlighting the economic interdependence despite political tensions. However, persistent trade imbalances remain a concern for India.
- Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges: Historical cultural exchanges between the two ancient civilizations date back centuries, with Buddhist connections forming a strong link. Contemporary cultural diplomacy has seen increased interest in yoga and Bollywood movies in China. People-to-people exchanges have shown positive growth; in the first quarter of 2025, Chinese diplomatic missions issued over 70,000 visas to Indian citizens, representing a 15% year-on-year increase.
STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE IN REGIONAL AND GLOBAL CONTEXTS
- Impact on Global South and Emerging World Order: As the only two major developing countries with populations exceeding one billion, China-India relations significantly influence the global economic and political landscape. Their combined voice on issues like climate change, sustainable development, and global governance reform carries substantial weight in international forums.
- Multilateral Cooperation and Competition: Both countries are active members of platforms such as BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and G20, where they often find common ground on issues affecting developing nations. China holds the rotating presidency of the SCO in 2025, presenting opportunities for coordinated approaches on regional challenges.
- Regional Strategic Dynamics: China’s increasing presence in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region through investments in Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar poses strategic challenges for India’s traditional sphere of influence. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), remains a significant irritant in bilateral relations as it passes through territory claimed by India.
THE CHALLENGES:
BORDER DISPUTES
- Colonial-Era Legacies: The unsettled boundary stems from pre-independence treaties and the varying interpretations of the McMahon Line (1914).
- Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh: The two core disputed regions. China claims Arunachal Pradesh as “Zangnan” (South Tibet), while India asserts sovereignty based on the 1914 Simla Convention. In Aksai Chin, the LAC (Line of Actual Control) remains poorly demarcated on the ground.
- Special Representatives’ Meetings (2003 Onwards): Initiated under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Wen Jiabao. Over 20+ rounds have produced Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs) but no final settlement.
- 1993 & 1996 Agreements: These established the principle of maintaining “peace and tranquility” along the LAC and prohibiting the use of firearms. The 2020 Galwan incident, however, underlined that these protocols need continual updating.
- Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC): Helps manage localised flare-ups (e.g., Pangong Tso in 2020, Tawang in 2022). While dialogues do reduce tensions, the absence of clear delineation perpetuates the risk of further standoffs.
- Border Infrastructure Development: Both nations are ramping up road, rail, and airstrip construction near disputed zones. India’s Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has accelerated projects like the Darbuk–Shyok–DBO Road, often meeting with Chinese objections.
- National Security vs. Development: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Defence in India has recommended prioritising infrastructure in border states for strategic parity, while Chinese think-tanks often view India’s acceleration as “containment.”
GEO-STRATEGIC RIVALRIES
- Indian Ocean Region (IOR): China’s “String of Pearls” strategy (port developments in Gwadar, Hambantota, etc.) raises concerns in New Delhi about encirclement. The Indian Navy’s expanding footprint and the SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) doctrine aims to counterbalance China’s naval reach.
- South Asia and Extended Neighbourhood: India’s traditional influence in Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives is challenged by China’s economic outreach (e.g., Belt and Road Initiative projects). Strategic experts (e.g., C. Raja Mohan) view this as a contest for political clout in India’s immediate neighbourhood.
- China-Pakistan Nexus: The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) runs through disputed Gilgit-Baltistan. India cites sovereignty concerns and has boycotted the BRI summits.
- Quad and SCO: India’s participation in the Quad (with the U.S., Japan, Australia) contrasts with its simultaneous membership in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. While India seeks to maintain strategic autonomy, some Chinese policymakers perceive the Quad as part of a larger China-containment strategy.
- 5G and Emerging Tech: India’s cautious approach to Chinese 5G vendors (e.g., Huawei) reflects concerns about cybersecurity and data sovereignty.
- Trade Deficit: Despite bilateral trade reaching USD 138.5 billion (2024), India faces a significant trade deficit with China — over USD 60–70 billion by some estimates. This asymmetry fuels strategic anxieties about dependency on Chinese imports (e.g., APIs in pharmaceuticals, electronics).
TRUST DEFICIT
- Domestic Political Discourses: Media coverage in both countries often amplifies nationalistic rhetoric, leading to hardened public sentiment. The Doklam (2017) and Galwan (2020) incidents reinforced mutual suspicion.
- Information and Propaganda Warfare: Think-tanks like the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) note an uptick in disinformation campaigns and negative portrayals of each other’s strategic intentions.
- People-to-People Barriers: Despite deep historical ties (e.g., Buddhism, cultural exchanges), stringent visa policies and limited student exchange hamper mutual understanding.
- Academic and Research Collaboration: Very few joint research projects or university exchange programmes exist, diluting the potential for intellectual synergy.
- High-Level Summits vs. Bureaucratic Disconnect: Leaders meet at forums like G-20 and SCO, but ground-level diplomatic channels sometimes struggle to quickly de-escalate tensions.
THE WAY FORWARD:
- Balancing Competition and Cooperation: The relationship requires a calibrated approach that acknowledges competition in some domains while pursuing cooperation in others. As Gandhi noted, “I long for the day when a free India and free China will co-operate together in friendship and brotherhood for their own good and for the good of Asia and the world”.
- From Border Management to Comprehensive Resolution: Moving beyond managing differences at the border to resolving underlying territorial disputes requires political will, creative solutions, and confidence-building measures. The agreed principle that bilateral relations should not be defined solely by the boundary question offers a pragmatic path forward.
- Shared Development Goals: Both countries are pursuing ambitious development agendas—India’s “Viksit Bharat 2047” and China’s high-quality development initiatives—creating potential complementarities despite strategic competition.
THE CONCLUSION: India-China relations represent one of the most complex and consequential bilateral relationships in contemporary international politics. As both countries pursue national rejuvenation and modernization while managing historical differences, their ability to find common ground will significantly impact regional stability and global governance structures. For India, the path forward requires strategic autonomy, economic resilience, and diplomatic nimbleness to advance national interests while contributing to a more stable Asian and global order.
UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTION: The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. 2024
MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION: Critically examine the major challenges underlying Sino-Indian relations in contemporary times. Suggest comprehensive measures to address these challenges.
SOURCE:
Spread the Word
