THE CONTEXT: The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) warns that one in four known species faces the threat of extinction. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) mandates that 30 per cent of terrestrial and marine areas—and specifically urban blue-green spaces under Target 12—must be conserved or restored by 2030.
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India’s average tree-and-forest cover in six leading metropolises is barely 10.26 per cent of their combined geographical area; only Mumbai reaches 25 per cent, while Bengaluru (6.85 per cent) and Ahmedabad (3.27 per cent) languish far below the Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) norm of 10-12 m² green space per capita. Figures are drawn from the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023. |
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1. Ecosystem Services Theory: Urban biodiversity provides regulating (e.g., air purification, flood control), provisioning (e.g., food, medicinal plants), and cultural (e.g., recreation, spiritual enrichment) services.
2. Doughnut Economics for Cities – A city must stay above a social foundation (housing, jobs) yet below a planetary ceiling (biodiversity loss, nitrogen load).
3. 3-30-300 Rule – Popularised by Professor Cecil Konijnendijk, this rule recommends that every citizen should (i) see three mature trees from every home or workplace, (ii) live in a neighbourhood with 30 per cent canopy cover, and (iii) reside within 300 metres of a public green space of at least half a hectare.
4. Deep Ecology: It emphasizes the intrinsic value of all life forms, advocating respect for biodiversity beyond its utilitarian benefits. This perspective challenges anthropocentric urban planning.
5. Urban Resilience Theory: Biodiverse cities are more resilient to climate shocks, such as heatwaves and floods, as green spaces mitigate urban heat islands and enhance water retention.
CURRENT SCENARIO: URBAN BIODIVERSITY IN CRISIS
The Forest Survey of India (FSI) (2023) reports that urban forest cover in major Indian cities averages 10.26%, with Mumbai at 25.43%, Hyderabad and Delhi at 12.6%, and Chennai at 4.66%. This decline is driven by:
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- Land-Use Conversion: Wetlands and forests are replaced by commercial and residential projects, as seen in Hyderabad’s Kancha Gachibowli.
- Urban Sprawl: Multi-storeyed flats replace traditional homes with gardens, reducing tree cover in cities like Chennai.
- Pollution and Encroachment: Waterbodies, critical for aquatic biodiversity, face pollution and illegal encroachments, with 60% of India’s urban lakes degraded (Ministry of Jal Shakti, 2024).
- Climate Change: Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall threaten urban ecosystems, with Bengaluru recording a 1.5°C temperature increase over the past decade.
| Parameter | Illustrative evidence | Governance gap |
|---|---|---|
| Tree cover decline | Bengaluru lost 88 % of native wetlands since 1973 (IISc studies); Delhi’s ridge canopy fragmented into 170 patches | Master Plans treat natural areas as vacant land |
| Aquatic ecosystems | 45 % of urban waterbodies mapped by CPCB are either encroached or polluted | Multiplicity of agencies; no single catchment custodian |
| Heat stress | 23 States and ~100 districts now run Heat Action Plans after record-breaking 2024 heatwaves | Plans rarely integrate biodiversity as a heat-mitigation tool |
SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN BIODIVERSITY:
1. Ecological Stability: Green spaces regulate microclimates, reduce urban heat islands, and enhance air quality. For instance, Delhi’s Ridge Forest absorbs 2.5 million tons of CO2 annually (TERI, 2023).
2. Human Well-Being: Access to green spaces improves mental health, with studies showing a 20% reduction in stress levels among urban residents near parks (WHO, 2024).
3. Economic Benefits: Biodiversity supports livelihoods through urban agriculture and ecotourism. Chennai’s Pallikaranai marsh generates ₹50 crore annually in ecosystem services (IIT Madras, 2022).
4. Climate Resilience: Wetlands and trees mitigate floods and droughts, critical in cities like Mumbai, which faced severe flooding in 2024.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE: LESSONS FROM BEST PRACTICES
1. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) calls for participatory, biodiversity-inclusive spatial planning for 100 % of urban areas by 2030
2. European Union Nature Restoration Law 2024 legally obliges all cities > 50 000 population to prepare Urban Greening Plans with quantifiable targets.
3. United Kingdom’s Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) Regulations 2023 mandate a 10 per cent measurable improvement in biodiversity value for most new developments.
4. Singapore’s City in Nature: Singapore integrates green corridors and vertical gardens, achieving 47% green cover despite high urbanization (Singapore NParks, 2024). Its Biodiversity Index guides urban planning.
5. Bogotá’s Green Belt: Colombia’s capital restored wetlands and urban forests, reducing flood risks by 30% and enhancing bird diversity (Bogotá Mayor’s Office, 2023).
6. London’s Urban Greening Factor: Mandates green roofs and permeable surfaces in new developments, increasing biodiversity by 15% since 2018 (Greater London Authority, 2024).
7. Curitiba’s Linear Parks: Brazil’s Curitiba uses parks along rivers to prevent flooding and promote biodiversity, supporting 200 bird species (Curitiba Municipality, 2024).
THE ISSUES:
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- Ecological Blind Spots in Fiscal Policy – Natural assets are classified as “non-revenue” in municipal balance-sheets, incentivising land monetisation.
- Data Asymmetry – Only a handful of Indian cities (e.g., Kochi, Nagpur, Gangtok) have applied the City Biodiversity Index, which is based on 23 indicators framed by ICLEI-South Asia.
- Legal Under-reach – EIA thresholds and exemptions for urban projects allow for cumulative ecological loss to go below the radar of mandatory appraisal.
- Socio-ecological Inequity – High-income wards typically enjoy four times the canopy cover of informal settlements, heightening climate injustice.
- Blue Infrastructure Decay – Forty percent or more of mapped urban water bodies are either partially encroached upon or receive untreated sewage, as multiple National Green Tribunal monitoring reports to the Central Pollution Control Board indicate.
THE WAY FORWARD:
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- Legally Mandated Urban Ecological Plans – Every Master Plan revision must include a biodiversity chapter with “no-net-loss” stipulations and offset mechanisms.
- Ecological Performance Bonds – Developers deposit an upfront bond refundable only when post-construction biodiversity targets (e.g., canopy density, native species mix) are achieved.
- Digital Green Registry – An open geospatial platform linking property IDs to real-time green-cover data; crowdsourced audits can trigger automatic penalty notices for illegal felling.
- Blue-Green Bonds – Allow municipal corporations to issue bonds under the Securities and Exchange Board of India’s Green Debt framework, with proceeds ring-fenced for park, lake and stream restoration.
- 30-30-300 Heat-Health Integration – Embed the 3-30-300 rule into Heat Action Plans so that tree planting and canopy maintenance become heat-mitigation investments, not mere beautification drives.
- Urban Commons Co-management MOUs – Scale the Jakkur model nationally by formally recognising Residents’ Welfare Associations and civic NGOs as “custodial partners”.
THE CONCLUSION:
Biodiversity is foundational infrastructure for liveable, competitive and resilient cities. India’s global GBF commitments and existing mission modes offer a ready policy scaffold. The missing links are fiscal incentives, enforceable legal triggers and decentralised citizen stewardship. Aligning these three levers can help India transition from reactive green patches to proactive ecological urbanism, thereby fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goal 11 mandate of creating safe, resilient, and sustainable human settlements.
UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTION:
Q. How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in conservation of flora and fauna? 2018
MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:
Q. Indian cities are engines of economic growth, yet the ecological metabolism that sustains them is under severe stress. Analyse the major drivers of urban biodiversity loss in India.
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