THE CONTEXT: The Green Revolution in India, initiated in the mid-1960s, marked a transformative shift in agriculture by focusing on high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation infrastructure, leading to a significant rise in foodgrain production. This revolution transitioned India from a food-deficit nation to self-sufficiency, with foodgrain production growing faster than population growth, driven by yield improvements rather than area expansion, and per capita availability increasing steadily over decades.
PRE-GREEN REVOLUTION ERA (1950–1965):
Between 1950 and 1965, the period was marked by low agricultural productivity, frequent food shortages, and heavy reliance on imports, particularly under the PL-480 program with United States. Key features of this era include:
Dependence on Area Expansion:
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- Agricultural growth was primarily driven by increasing the area under cultivation rather than improving yields.
- Between 1950–51 and 1964–65, the area under foodgrain cultivation grew at an average annual rate of 1.4%.
Challenges:
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- Low Productivity: Yield growth was limited, with foodgrain yields growing at only 2.1% annually.
- Food Insecurity: The Bengal famine in 1943 and subsequent droughts in the mid-1960s underscored India’s vulnerability to food crises.
- Import Dependency: By the mid-1960s, India relied on importing up to 10 million tonnes of cereals annually, straining foreign exchange reserves and compromising national sovereignty.
- Policy Focus: Early Five-Year Plans emphasized land reforms, cooperatives, and irrigation projects, but these efforts were insufficient to meet growing food demand.
THE GREEN REVOLUTION (1965 ONWARDS):
The Green Revolution was launched as part of the New Agricultural Strategy (NAS) during the Third Five-Year Plan (1961–66) to address India’s food security crisis. It marked a paradigm shift from area-driven to yield-driven agricultural growth.
Key Components:
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- High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of Seeds: Introduced in wheat (e.g., Kalyan Sona, Sonalika) and later rice (e.g., IR-8). HYVs were responsive to chemical inputs like fertilizers and pesticides, offering significantly higher yields.
- Increased Use of Fertilizers and Irrigation: Fertilizer consumption rose from 0.5 kg/ha in the early 1950s to over 50 kg/ha by the late 1980s. Expansion of irrigation infrastructure, including large-scale dam projects like Bhakra-Nangal, increased the net irrigated area from 30 million hectares in 1960 to over 60 million hectares by the late 1980s.
- State-Led Institutional Support: Minimum Support Prices (MSP), Introduced in 1966–67 to incentivize farmers to adopt HYVs.
- Credit Facilities: Expansion of rural credit through institutions like NABARD.
- Marketing Mechanisms: Establishing procurement agencies like the Food Corporation of India (FCI) ensured stable market access for farmers.
- Farm Mechanization: Adopting tractors, threshers, and other machinery reduced labor dependency and increased efficiency.
Outcomes:
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- Shift in Agricultural Growth Dynamics: Yield growth became the primary driver of foodgrain production post-1965, with annual yield increases exceeding area expansion rates.
- Regional Focus: Initial success was concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh due to better irrigation facilities and institutional support.
- Quantitative Achievements: Foodgrain production rose from 82 million tonnes in 1960–61 to over 176 million by the late 1990s.
PERIODISATION OF GROWTH PHASES IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE (1950–2022):
Pre-Green Revolution Era (1950–1965):
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Initial Phase of Green Revolution (1965–1983):
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Maturing Phase (1983–1993):
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Post-Liberalization Stagnation (1993–2006):
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Recovery Phase (2006–2022):
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QUANTITATIVE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION:
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- Foodgrain Production Indices: The index for production grew by over 500% between 1950–51 and 2019–20, while the area under cultivation remained relatively stagnant.
- Yield Growth Outpacing Area Expansion: Yield became the dominant driver of production growth. For instance, between 1965–66 and 1982–83, yield growth averaged 2.5% per annum, whereas area expansion slowed to just 0.5% per annum. This trend was further reinforced in subsequent decades.
- Per Capita Foodgrain Availability: Per capita foodgrain production and availability have steadily risen. By 2021–22, per capita availability had risen to approximately 188 kg/year from around 140 kg/year in the early 1950s. Rice yields increased from around 1,013 kg/ha in the early 1960s to over 2,500 kg/ha by the late 2010s.
- Divergence Between Population and Production Indices: While population indices grew steadily, foodgrain production indices diverged significantly post-Green Revolution. By 2021–22, production indices were nearly double those of population indices. The rapid increase in productivity quelled fears of a Malthusian crisis often predicted for India during the mid-20th century.
Global Comparisons: Despite progress, India’s per capita cereal production (245 kg/person/year in 2020) remains below global averages (383 kg/person/year). Emerging economies like China (425 kg/person/year) and Brazil (590 kg/person/year) have outperformed India due to higher productivity levels.
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- Implications for Food Security and Sovereignty: By the early 1990s, India became a net exporter of food grains. Mechanisms like Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) ensured stable incomes for farmers. Yield-driven growth reduced pressure on expanding cultivated areas, preserving forests and biodiversity.
QUALITATIVE SHIFTS IN AGRICULTURE
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- Integration of Modern Science: The introduction of High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs) such as Kalyan Sona (wheat) and IR-8 (rice) significantly increased productivity. Agriculture was mechanized with tractors, threshers, and harvesters to reduce labor dependency and improve efficiency. Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and weedicides were used to enhance crop yields. Adopting short-duration crops allowed multiple cropping cycles annually, increasing cropping intensity.
- Strengthening Public Agricultural Research Institutions: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) played a pivotal role in developing HYVs, pest-resistant crops, and climate-resilient varieties—establishing the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) as the hub of Green Revolution innovations. ICAR’s research developed over 6,000 crop varieties, including bio-fortified crops like zinc-enriched wheat and iron-rich rice. Focus on precision farming techniques such as drip irrigation and soil health management.
- Rise of Capitalist Agriculture: Increased commercialization of agriculture with a focus on market-oriented cash crops like wheat and rice. Larger farmers benefitted disproportionately due to better access to capital, HYVs, fertilizers, irrigation facilities, and mechanization. By the late 1980s, HYVs were adopted across India for crops like rice (81% of the area under HYVs by 2000) and coarse cereals like jowar and bajra.
Spread beyond initial regions: Land reforms in West Bengal during the late 1970s facilitated the spread of Green Revolution technologies in eastern India. This resulted in higher agricultural growth rates (3.6% per annum) compared to the national average during the maturing phase (1980–1993)
THE LIMITATIONS:
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- Soil Degradation: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides led to decreased soil fertility, increased salinity, and toxic contamination. Approximately 30% of India’s soil is degraded, with Punjab and Haryana among the worst-affected states. Monoculture of wheat and rice in Punjab reduced organic carbon content, leading to nutrient depletion.
- Water Depletion: The introduction of water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane caused the over-extraction of groundwater. India now uses 91% of its freshwater for agriculture, with regions like Punjab facing severe water scarcity. Punjab’s groundwater table is declining by 0.5 meters annually due to overirrigation.
- Loss of Biodiversity: Focusing on high-yielding varieties (HYVs) replaced traditional crop varieties, reducing genetic diversity. This monoculture approach increased vulnerability to pests and diseases.
- Revisionist Histories: The Green Revolution did not mark a revolutionary break but continued pre-existing agricultural growth trends. Benefits were concentrated in specific regions and crops (wheat and rice), neglecting coarse cereals and pulses. The focus on wheat and rice led to a decline in the production of coarse cereals and pulses, reducing dietary diversity.
- Impact on Rural Labor: Mechanization reduced rural employment opportunities, pushing landless laborers into urban migration or informal sectors. Mechanization disproportionately favored large farms while marginalizing smallholders and agricultural laborers.
THE WAY FORWARD:
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- Organic Farming: Promote organic agriculture through initiatives like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Mission Organic Value Chain Development for the North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER). Sikkim became the first fully organic state in India, certifying 60,000 hectares under organic farming.
- Crop Diversification: Shift from monoculture of wheat and rice to diverse crops like millets, pulses, and oilseeds to improve soil health and reduce dependency on water-intensive crops. The government’s focus on millets as “Shree Anna” during the International Year of Millets (2023) highlighted their nutritional and ecological benefits.
- Efficient Water Management: Encourage micro-irrigation techniques such as drip and sprinkler systems under schemes like Per Drop More Crop (PMKSY). Maharashtra’s adoption of drip irrigation increased water-use efficiency and productivity in sugarcane farming.
- Soil Health Management: Expand the Soil Health Card Scheme to monitor soil quality and reduce overuse of chemical fertilizers. PM-PRANAM incentivizes states to promote organic fertilizers by saving chemical fertilizer subsidies.
- Climate-Resilient Technologies: Invest in R&D for drought-resistant, heat-tolerant, and pest-resistant crop varieties. Sorghum hybrids developed by ICRISAT require less fertilizer and are resilient under heat stress.
- Support for Small and Marginal Farmers: Strengthen Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) to enhance collective bargaining power and market access. The government aims to establish 10,000 FPOs by 2027 with financial support under the Central Sector Scheme of Formation and Promotion of FPOs.
THE CONCLUSION:
The Green Revolution transformed India’s agricultural landscape by shifting from area-driven to yield-driven growth, ensuring food security, reducing import dependency, and strengthening national sovereignty. However, addressing ecological degradation, regional disparities, and socio-economic inequalities through sustainable practices, inclusive policies, and technological advancements remains critical to achieving long-term agricultural resilience and equity.
UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTIONS:
Q.1 What is the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification? 2021
Q.2 What are the major factors responsible for making rice-wheat system a success? In spite of this success how has this system become bane in India? 2020
MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:
Q.1 The Green Revolution successfully achieved its primary goal of food sufficiency for India. However, it also led to several disparities. Comment
SOURCE:
https://www.epw.in/journal/2024/52/special-articles/green-revolution-india.html?check_logged_in=1
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