THE CONTEXT: India registered an improvement of eight places in the annual Gender Gap Report, 2023 of the World Economic Forum (WEF) with respect to the previous report. It was ranked at 127 out of 146 countries in terms of gender parity. This editorial discussion analyses various aspects of gender parity highlighted in the report.
ABOUT THE INDEX
The Global Gender Gap Index annually benchmarks the current state and evolution of gender parity across four key dimensions:
- Economic Participation and Opportunity
- Educational Attainment
- Health and Survival
- Political Empowerment
The Global Gender Gap Index measures scores on a 0 to 100 scale and scores can be interpreted as the distance covered towards parity (i.e. the percentage of the gender gap that has been closed). Cross-country comparisons support the identification of the most effective policies to close gender gaps.
Findings with respect to the world: The global gender gap score in 2023 for all 146 countries included in this edition stands at 68.4% closed. At the current rate of progress, it will take 131 years to reach full parity.
Gender equality recovers to pre-pandemic levels, but pace of progress has slowed. The WEF’s Gender Gap Index, which measures gender parity in 146 countries, has shown an overall improvement of 4.1 percentage points since its inception in 2006.
FOUR SUBINDEXES
Economic Participation and Opportunity: This subindex measured gender-based gaps in workforce participation, remuneration and advancement.
Educational Attainment: Gender-based gaps in educational attainment were measured with the ratio of women to men enrolled in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The ratio of female to male literacy was also used as an indicator of a country’s long-term ability to educate women and men.
Health and Survival: The differences between women’s and men’s health were measured using the sex ratio at birth and the gap between women’s and men’s healthy life expectancy.
Political Empowerment: The gap between women and men at the highest level of political decision-making was measured by the ratio of women to men in ministerial positions and the ratio of women to men in parliamentary positions.
PROGRESS MADE
Health and Survival gender gap has closed by 96%
Educational Attainment gap has closed by 95.2%,
Economic Participation and Opportunity gaps closed by 60.1%
Political Empowerment gap has closed by 22.1%.
TIME NEEDED IN FUTURE TO CLOSE THE GAP
169 years for the Economic Participation and Opportunity gender gap
16 years for the Educational Attainment gender gap.
The time to close.
the Health and Survival gender gap remains undefined.
At the current rate of progress over the 2006- 2023 span, it will take 162 years to close the Political Empowerment gender gap
GENDER GAP IN THE ECONOMIC SPHERE
GENDER GAP IN LABOUR MARKET
- Women continue to face higher unemployment rates than men, with a global unemployment rate at around 4.5% for women and 4.3% for men.
- Even when women secure employment, they often face substandard working conditions: a significant portion of the recovery in employment can be attributed to informal employment, whereby out of every five jobs created for women, four are within the informal economy; for men, the ratio is two out of every three jobs.
GENDER GAPS IN THE LABOUR MARKETS OF THE FUTURE
- Science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) occupations are an important set of jobs that are well remunerated and expected to grow in significance and scope in the future.
- Women make up almost half (49.3%) of total employment across non-STEM occupations, but just 29.2% of all STEM workers.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
- When it comes to artificial intelligence (AI) specifically, talent availability overall has surged, increasing six times between 2016 and 2022, yet female representation in AI is progressing very slowly.
- The percentage of women working in AI today is approximately 30%, roughly 4 percentage points higher than it was in 2016.
GENDER GAPS IN THE SKILLS OF THE FUTURE
- Online learning offers flexibility, accessibility and customization, enabling learners to acquire knowledge in a manner that suits their specific needs and circumstances.
- However, women and men currently don’t have equal opportunities and access to these online platforms, given the persistent digital divide.
- Except for teaching and mentoring courses, there is disparity in enrolment in every skill category. For enrolment in technology skills such as technological literacy (43.7% parity) and AI and big data (33.7%), which are among the top 10 skills projected to grow, there is less than 50% parity and progress has been sluggish.
GENDER GAPS IN POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
- Much like in the case of representation of women in business leadership, gender gaps in political leadership continue to persist. Although there has been an increase in the number of women holding political decision-making posts worldwide, achieving gender parity remains a distant goal and regional disparities are significant.
- Approximately 27.9% of the global population, equivalent to 2.12 billion people, live in countries with a female head of state. While this indicator experienced stagnation between 2013 and 2021, 2022 witnessed a significant increase.
- Another recent positive trend is observed for the share of women in parliaments. In 2013, only 18.7% of parliament members globally were women among the 76 countries with consistent data. By 2022, this number had risen steadily to 22.9%.
- Significant strides have also been made in terms of women’s representation in local government globally. Out of the 117 countries with available data since 2017, 18 countries, including Bolivia (50.4%), India (44.4%) and France (42.3%), have achieved representation of women of over 40% in local governance.
ANALYSIS OF THE SOUTHERN ASIA
- Southern Asia has achieved 63.4% gender parity, the second-lowest score of the eight regions. The score has risen by 1.1 percentage points since the last edition which can be partially attributed to the rise in scores of populous countries such as India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
- Along with Bhutan, these are the countries in Southern Asia that have seen an improvement of 0.5 percentage points or more in their scores since the last edition.
- Bangladesh, Bhutan and Sri Lanka are the best-performing countries in the region, while Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan are at the bottom of both the regional and global ranking tables.
- At the current rate of progress, full parity in the region will be achieved in 149 years.
ANALYSIS OF PROGRESS OF INDIA IN GENDER PARITY
India has closed 64.3% of the overall gender gap, ranking 127th on the global index. It has improved by 1.4 percentage points and eight positions since the last edition, marking a partial recovery towards its 2020 (66.8%) parity level.
- The country has attained parity in enrolment across all levels of education. However, it has reached only 36.7% parity on Economic Participation and Opportunity.
- Although there were positive strides in wage and income parity, the representation of women in senior positions and technical roles saw a slight decline since the previous year, posing obstacles to India’s progress in economic empowerment.
- On the Health and Survival index (95%), the improvement in sex ratio at birth by 1.9 percentage points to 92.7% has driven up parity after more than a decade of slow progress. Compared with top scoring countries that register a 94.4% gender parity at birth, the indicator stands at 92.7% for India.
- It is said that for Vietnam, Azerbaijan, India and China, the relatively low overall rankings on the Health and Survival sub-index is explained by skewed sex ratios at
THE ISSUES
Lower FLFR
- According to the latest data available from the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), India’s labour force participation rate (LFPR) fell to 39.5% in the last financial year (2022-23) that ended in March. This is the lowest LFPR reading since 2016-17. The LFPR for men stood at a seven-year low of 66% while that of women was pegged at a mere 8.8%.
REASON FOR LOW LFPR
Social reasons
- The disproportionate burden of household duties, accompanied by mobility and safety constraints, results in women forgoing their employment. A recent NITI Aayog report states that women in India spend 9.8 times more time than men on unpaid domestic chores (against a global average of 2.6 as reported by UN Women).
- Despite inadequate job creation, household incomes did rise, which potentially reduced women’s participation, especially in subsidiary activities (“income effect”) due to change in preferences.
Maternity factor
- Maternity benefits Act 2016 increased cost for companies so they are reluctant to hire the female employees.
- Non – availability of quality day-care
Barriers to migration for women:
- A significant proportion of women usually engaged in domestic duties reported their willingness to accept work if the work was made available at their household premises.
Workplace Safety
- Out of the population of working women, more than 90 percent work in the informal sector. They are either self-employed or casual workers, predominantly in agricultural and construction sectors. This means that they face increased exploitation, poor working conditions, lack of mobility, and higher risk of violence. This discourages women from entering the workforce.
- Sexual Harassment at the Workplace-While policies such as Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 (POSH Act) and National Crèche scheme have been enacted by the government, there is limited compliance by industries leading to women facing challenges at work and then choosing to drop out of the workforce.
- 31% of industries is not compliant with POSH. ICC is not constituted in these (NCRB data shows- sexual harassment within office premises more than doubled)
- Biasness and Sterotyping
- gendering of occupations-Glass ceiling effect
- Gender Pay Gap- According to the Report “Women and Men in India 2022″ released by the National Statistical, wage disparity between men and women has widened over the past decade, with the gap opening up further at higher wage levels.
Policiy/Administartive
- Lack of comprehensive policy support and effective implementation.
- While the government has introduced a number of policies to promote gender equality; lack of convergence in existing initiatives, gender disaggregated data and adequate gender transformative policies by the government, further leads to women dropping out of the workforce.
APPROACH
- As per McKinsey Global Institute’s report, India could achieve an 18 percent increase over business-as-usual GDP (USD 770 billion) by 2025.
- In order to sustain and accelerate the improving LFPR for females, India must adopt a three-pronged approach with active participation, interventions and collaborations on awareness, policy change, implementation and retention initiatives from the trio of samaaj (society), sarkaar (government) and bazaar (business).
- The focused support of the government to catalyse female LFPR through convergence of their efforts through different ministries is the key to fostering the contribution of women in the economy.
- Stronger implementation through gender audits and availability of gender disaggregated data for implementation of existing policies such as equal pay for equal work, POSH, crèche services, etc.
- Enable incentives for companies with equal gender representation across levels will ensure compliance with the policies enacted. For example: post the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, India witnessed an impressive surge in the number of women owning or managing agricultural land as per a World Bank-backed study.
- Mapping of women’s aspirations to available opportunities in the job market, encouraging return to work post break/ maternity leave with effective support and upskilling opportunities are few critical steps to be taken by the industry across the sector.
- Corporates also need to be compliant with policy guidelines such as equal pay, crèche facilities, POSH, etc. to encourage women to continue work, feel safe and valued. For instance, while sexual harassment cases at offices declined in FY 21 due to remote working, 97% firms are still unaware of the POSH Act. Setting up a Women Skill Impact Bond will enable skilling and retention of women in the workforce.
- Need a comprehensive approach to improving labour market outcomes for women through improving access to and relevance of education and training programs, skills development, access to child care, maternity protection, and provision of safe and accessible transport, along with the promotion of a pattern of growth that creates job opportunities.
WOMEN REPRESENTATION IN STEM
- According to The Equality Equation: Advancing the Participation of Women and Girls in STEM, a World Bank report that provides a rich overview of global patterns of gender gaps in STEM education, merely 18% of girls enrolled at the tertiary level are pursuing studies in the field of STEM, as compared to 35% of boys.
- The scenario, however, is much better in India, with nearly 43% of STEM graduates being women, as opposed to other developed nations like the United States, Canada, and the UK, where there are fewer women – 34%, 31% and 38%, respectively – studying STEM at the tertiary level.
- However, we must recognise that this figure must translate into employability and leadership. Data from the National Science Foundation showed that while 52 per cent of women enrolled for science, technology, engineering and math courses for graduation, only 29 per cent actually joined the STEM workforce. Even at the C-suite level only 3 per cent of women hold CEO posts in the STEM Industry.
Steps to be Taken:
- Open pathways and dismantle biases that prevent girls from dreaming of a career in science. Address their obstacles by creating conducive workplaces, improving employment prospects and providing them with support that empowers them—able mentorship, skills, leadership development and equal opportunities.
- There is a need for male allies who further facilitate this at the individual, organisational and institutional level. They play an essential role in creating a more diverse and inclusive workplace, that also leads to sustainable and inclusive growth for any organisation.
Political Front:
- On Political Empowerment, India has registered 25.3% parity, with women representing 15.1% of parliamentarians, the highest for India since the inaugural 2006 edition.
- Out of the 117 countries with available data since 2017, 18 countries — including Bolivia (50.4%), India (44.4%) and France (42.3 %) — have achieved women’s representation of over 40% in local governance.
ISSUE OF THE UNDER REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN
WHAT ARE THE REASONS
- One of the main barriers to participation of women in politics in this country is illiteracy. India has one of the largest illiterate populations. Illiteracy limits the ability of the women to understand the political system and issues.
- Poverty is another barrier which has led to low political participation of women in India. Often poor people have no direct voting stance. It is often influenced by rich and well-off people.
- Role of Money power in politics makes it harder for women to enter the political forum.
- The institution of marriage is another barrier which leads to less political participation of women in India. After a woman gets married, all her political decisions are controlled by the family.it is most often those women who have a political background that enter into electoral arena.
- The unhealthy political environment
- On the reserved seats, at the local level, political leaders take positions in the name of their wife, and after winning elections, actual power is used by their male counterparts instead of women. (Concept of sarpanch pati raj/pati panchayat phenomenon)
WHAT CAN BE DONE
- Women representatives should form into a ‘critical mass’ so as to act as a pressure group in the legislature. A critical mass of women in politics can bring to the agenda issues of crucial concern to women which are often otherwise neglected or relegated to second place, such as contraception.
- Devise, launch and promote public campaigns to alert public opinion to the usefulness and advantages for society as a whole of balanced participation by women and men in decision- making.
- Women should form their own political parties such as those existing in Canada, Germany, Iceland.
- Expansion of educational opportunities for women, greater recognition of their unpaid work, wider representation in electoral politics, legislative and legal mechanisms to safeguard their rights and equal opportunities for participation in the decision-making process are some other things which would strengthen the process of empowerment.
- The Women’s Reservation Bill gives 33 per cent reservation for women seats in all levels of Indian politics. This is an attempt to increase female political participation.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR REDUCING GENDER GAP IN ALL ASPECTS OF SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL LIFE
Economic Participation & Opportunity and Health & Survival: Various programmes/Schemes that are intended towards women development and empowerment are:
- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) ensures the protection, survival and education of the girl child.
- Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK) aims to empower rural women with opportunities for skill development and employment.
- Working Women Hostel (WWH) ensures the safety and security for working women.
- Scheme for Adolescent Girls aims to empower girls in the age group 11-18 and to improve their social status through nutrition, life skills, home skills and vocational training
- The National Crèche Scheme ensures that women take up gainful employment through providing a safe, secure and stimulating environment to the children.
- Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandna Yojna aims to provide maternity benefit to pregnant and lactating mothers.
- Sukanya Samriddhi Yojna(SSY) – Under this scheme girls have been economically empowered by opening their bank accounts.
- Skill Upgradation & Mahila Coir Yojna is an exclusive training programme of MSME aimed at skill development of women artisans engaged in coir Industry.
- Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP) – a major credit- linked subsidy programme aimed at generating self-employment opportunities through establishment of micro-enterprises in the non-farm sector
- Female Entrepreneurship: To promote female entrepreneurship, the Government has initiated Programmes like Stand-Up India and Mahila e-Haat (online marketing platform to support women entrepreneurs/ SHGs/NGOs), Entrepreneurship and Skill Development Programme (ESSDP). Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) provides access to institutional finance to micro/small business.
Educational Attainment: Several steps and initiatives have been taken up in school education system such as:
- National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 and flagship programme like Samagra Shiksha and the subsequent Right to Education Act (RTE).
- Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBVs) have been opened in Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs).
- Gender sensitisation is also done which includes gender sensitization Module – part of in-service training, construction of toilets for girls, construction of residential quarters for female teachers and curriculum reforms.
Political Participation:
- To bring women in the mainstream of political leadership at the grass root level, government has reserved 33% of the seats in Panchayati Raj Institutions for women.
- Capacity Building of Panchayat Stakeholders including Elected Women Representatives (EWRs) of Ministry of Panchayati Raj is conducted with a view to empowering women to participate effectively in the governance processes.
THE CONCLUSION: Increasing women’s economic participation and achieving gender parity in leadership, in both business and government, are two key levers for addressing broader gender gaps in households, societies and economies. Collective, coordinated and bold action by private- and public-sector leaders will be instrumental in accelerating progress towards gender parity and igniting renewed growth and greater resilience. Recent years have seen major setbacks and the state of gender parity still varies widely by company, industry and economy. Yet, a growing number of actors have recognized the importance and urgency of taking action, and evidence on effective gender parity initiatives is solidifying.
Mains Question
- Analyse various dimensions of gender parity in the context of the recently published Global Gender Gap report.
- Despite various government initiatives India has not been able to plug gender gap, Critically analyse the statement.
