1. CLIMATE RESILIENT PLANTS
TAG: GS 3: ENVIRONMENT
THE CONTEXT: In the biodiversity hotspot Western Ghats, researchers have found 62 species of plants that can withstand harsh environments and can survive extreme dehydration.
EXPLANATION:
Desiccation-tolerant (DT) vascular plants
- The species that can withstand harsh environments and can survive extreme dehydration are called as desiccation-tolerant (DT) vascular plants. It has potential applications in agriculture, particularly in areas where water is scarce.
- Genes of these desiccation-tolerant vascular plants can be used to create a high-temperature tolerant variety of crops to improve climate resilience and ensure food security.
- They are usually found in rocky outcrops in the tropics and can recover quickly when water supplies are restored.
- Out of the 62 species identified, 16 are endemic to India, while 12 are exclusive to Western Ghats outcrops.
- DT plant varieties are found in both flowering and non-flowering species and in both temperate and tropical climates. The global population of these species ranges between 300 and 1,500.
- India now has nine new generic records for the global list. They are identified as Pyrrosia, Aleuritopteris, Corallodiscus, Arundinella, Bhidea, Bothriochloa, Danthonidium, Dimeria and Glyphochloa.
- The findings revealed that Indian desiccation-tolerant plants are spread mainly in rock outcrops and partially shaded tree trunks inside the forests. Ferricretes (layers of sedimentary rock) and basaltic plateaus seemed to be the preferred habitats.
Adaptability of different species:
- To adapt to extreme conditions, these plant species develop adaptive strategies to survive through morphological and physiological traits.
- Hydration and desiccation tolerance are two commonly studied strategies for plants in extreme habitats. Hydration is a condition where plant tissues can tolerate more than 30 per cent of water content. But in desiccation, plants undergo longer dry days during which the moisture content of the leaves is the same as in the air.
- Species like Indopoa pauperculaand Dimeria preferred boulders, gravelly patches, cryptogamic crusts, shallow and deep soil depressions.
- Colour changes and morphological characteristics were also observed in the species. It was found that Tripogon species changed colours from greyish in dry conditions to green in hydrated situations while turning orange to brownish yellow at the beginning of greening.
- In another species, Oropetium thomaeum, the leaf cloud changed from green in the hydrated phase to dark purple or orange and ranged from greyish to ash colour during the period of desiccation.
2. THE PRESS AND REGISTRATION OF PERIODICALS BILL, 2023 AND THE MEDIATION BILL, 2021
TAG: GS 2: POLITY AND GOVERNANCE
THE CONTEXT: The Union cabinet cleared both the Press and Registration of Periodicals Bill, 2023 and the Mediation Bill, 2021. The bills have now been reworked to incorporate suggestions from a Parliamentary panel.
EXPLANATION:
Mediation Bill, 2021:
- The bill has been proposed by the Ministry of Law and Justice.
- The idea of the bill is to find an efficient way of dispute resolution and free up the judiciary of avoidable litigation.
- The Mediation Bill includes a framework for settling civil or commercial disputes through mediation before parties approach a court or tribunal.
- Under the bill, Mediation Council of India will be set up. Its functions include registering mediators and recognising mediation service providers and mediation institutes (which train and certify mediators). The Mediation Council requires prior approval from the central government before issuing regulations related to its essential functions.
- A party may withdraw from mediation after two mediation sessions. The mediation process must be completed within 180 days, which may be extended by another 180 days by the parties.
- The Bill lists disputes that are not fit for mediation (such as those involving criminal prosecution or affecting the rights of third parties). The central government may amend this list.
- If the parties agree, they may appoint any person as a mediator. If not, they may apply to a mediation service provider to appoint a person from its panel of mediators.
- Agreements resulting from mediation will be binding and enforceable in the same manner as court judgments.
- The Bill makes participation in pre-litigation mediation mandatory. Mediation is a voluntary dispute-resolution process.
- The Bill applies to international mediations only if they are conducted in India. It does not provide for enforcement of settlement agreements resulting from international mediation conducted outside India.
Benefits of the bill:
- Can spread awareness of mediation
- A less time-consuming method
- More affordable way to settle conflicts
- Increase peace and harmony
- Reduce the burden on courts by enabling out-of-court settlements.
- May help reduce pendency and the slow disposal rate in courts.
Criticism:
- Mandatory pre-suit negotiations which demonstrates the Bill’s coercive nature, which will cause delays and pending mediation cases.
- The Bill is applicable to commercial disputes but is non applicable to disputes/matters of non commercial nature involving the government and its agencies.
- The international mediation will only be taken into consideration if it is held in India.
Press and Registration of Periodicals Bill, 2023:
- The bill has been proposed bythe Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
- It will replace the 155-year-old ‘Press and Registration of Books Act of 1867’ with simplified legislation that de-criminalises various provisions and brings digital media under its ambit.
- It seeks to provide a simple online system for registration of periodicals with the Registrar of Newspapers for India.
- It also seeks to do away with two provisions that required the publishers and printers to file a declaration before the district magistrate.
- It also seeks to do away with the penal provisions of the PRB Act, which made improper declaration of information a punishable offence with a prison term of up to six months.
- The new Bill also provides for an appellate authority.
- Currently, a person wanting to start a newspaper has to submit an application to the district collector, who sends it to the Registrar of Newspapers in India (RNI) to check for title availability.
- The registration process moves forward only after the RNI conveys the availability of the title to the collector, who then administers the oath to the person keen on starting the newspaper as per provisions of the PRB Act.
- The new Bill also seeks to move this process of checking title availability online, thereby reducing the time required for registration of newspapers and periodicals significantly.
Benefits:
- Maintaining a credible directory of active publications.
- Provide for a simple online system for registration of periodicals.
- Bring transparency and ease of doing business.
- Reduce the time required for registration of newspapers and periodicals by checking title availability online.
Criticism:
- The Bill is being criticised as draconian as it has provisions to control the media.
- Lack of independence: The Bill is seen as increasing curbs on independent journalism.
- Increased penalties: It can discourage media and publishing of significant articles.
Press and Registration of Books (PRB) Act, 1867:
- It governs the registration of the print and publishing industry in the country.
- The Act was passed in the year 1867 when India was under the colonial rule.
- Therefore, it definitely had a dubious agenda. It was aimed at curbing free speech by introducing several procedural requirements if an individual wanted to start publication of any book, newspaper etc. In fact, violation of these trivial procedures rendered the entire publication unlawful. Despite attaining independence, the law continues to operate
- According to its statement of object and reasons, the act aims to
(a) regulate printing press and newspapers in India
(b) preserve copies of books and newspapers printed in India
(c) provide for the registration of books and newspapers.
- ‘Book’ for the purposes of the Act includes even a pamphlet and every sheet of music, map, chart etc. Interestingly, electronic media is outside the purview of this act.
Registrar of Newspapers in India (RNI)
- Also known as the Office of the Registrar of the Newspapers for India is a Government of India statutory body of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
- It is the main office for the registration of the publications, such as newspapers and magazines in India.
- It was established on 1 July 1956, on the recommendation of the First Press Commission in 1953 and by amending the Press and Registration of Books Act 1867.
- The Office of the Registrar of Newspapers for India is headquartered in New Delhi.
- It regulates and monitors the printing and publication of newspapers based on the Press and Registration of Books Act of 1867 and the Registration of Newspapers (Central) Rules, 1956.
Source: https://www.livemint.com/news/india/cabinet-nod-for-press-mediation-bills-11689790147865.html
3. INDUS WATERS TREATY
TAG: GS 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
THE CONTEXT: The Indus Waters Treaty is cited by many as an example of cooperation between two unfriendly neighbours for many reasons but in the last decade, issues are arising out of the treaty.
EXPLANATION:
Issues involved:
- The Indus Waters Treaty (1960) regulates the Indus water courses between the two riparian states of India and Pakistan.
- IWT have survived several wars and phases of bitter relations, and its laying down of detailed procedures and criteria for dispute resolution.
- But in the last decade, exercising judicial recourse to settle the competing claims and objections arising out of the run-of-river hydroelectric projects on the tributaries of the rivers that flow into Pakistan has increased.
- In January 2023, Pakistan initiated arbitration at the Hague-based Permanent Court of Arbitration to address the interpretation of the IWT to certain design elements of two run-of-river hydroelectric projects on the Kishanganga and Ratle.
- India raised objections as it views that the Court of Arbitration is not competent to consider the questions put to it by Pakistan and that such questions should instead be decided through the neutral expert process.
- On July 6, 2023, the court unanimously passed a decision (which is binding on both parties without appeal) rejecting each of India’s objections. The court determined that it is competent to consider and determine the disputes set forth in Pakistan’s request for arbitration.
Indus Waters Treaty
- It was signed in 1960 after nine years of negotiations between India and Pakistan with the help of the World Bank, which is also a signatory.
- The Treaty allocates the Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan and the Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India.
- At the same time, the Treaty allows each country certain uses on the rivers allocated to the other.
- The Treaty sets out a mechanism for cooperation and information exchange between the two countries regarding their use of the rivers, known as the Permanent Indus Commission, which has a commissioner from each country.
- The IWT requires Pakistan that it is under obligation to let flow and shall not permit any interference with the waters of the eastern rivers.
- India is also obligated to let flow all the waters of the western rivers and shall not permit any interference with these waters except for certain uses, which include the generation of hydroelectric power on the rivers and tributaries of the western rivers before they flow into Pakistan.
- The Treaty also sets forth distinct procedures to handle issues which may arise: “questions” are handled by the Commission; “differences” are to be resolved by a Neutral Expert; and “disputes” are to be referred to an ad hoc arbitral tribunal called the “Court of Arbitration.”
- As a signatory to the Treaty, the World Bank’s role is limited and procedural.
- In particular, its role in relation to “differences” and “disputes” is limited to the designation of individuals to fulfil certain roles in the context of Neutral Expert or Court of Arbitration proceedings when requested by either or both of the Parties.
Way forward:
- In an atmosphere of a lack of trust, judicial recourse appears to be the only rational strategy by the IWT parties. But it is not likely to address the rapidly growing industrial needs of the two countries, apart from food and energy needs.
- Reconciling this divergent approach can be sought with the help of two cardinal principles of international water courses law accompanying binding obligations, i.e., equitable and reasonable utilisation (ERU) and the principle not to cause significant harm or no harm rule (NHR).
- The states need to be guided by the factors mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses 1997, including climate change.
- World Bank, which is a party to the IWT, may use its forum to forge a transnational alliance of epistemic communities to build convergent state policies, resulting in the ultimate inclusion of these two principles in the IWT.
Permanent Court of Arbitration:
- It is a non-UN intergovernmental organization located in The Hague, Netherlands.
- PCA provides services of arbitral tribunal to resolve disputes that arise out of international agreements between member states, international organizations or private parties.
- The cases span a range of legal issues involving territorial and maritime boundaries, sovereignty, human rights, international investment, and international and regional trade.
- The PCA is constituted through two separate multilateral conventions with a combined membership of 122 states. It is not a United Nations agency but a United Nations observer.
4. BLACK SEA GRAIN INITIATIVE
TAG: GS 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; GS 3: ECONOMY
THE CONTEXT: India has voiced support for the U.N.’s efforts in continuing the Black Sea Grain initiative and expressed hope for an early resolution.
EXPLANATION:
- Earlier, Russia announced it was terminating the implementation of the U.N.-brokered deal that allowed the export of grain and related foodstuffs and fertilisers from Ukrainian ports.
- Addressing the U.N. General Assembly’s annual debate on the ‘Situation in the Temporarily Occupied Territories of Ukraine’ on Tuesday, India’s Permanent Representative to the U.N.
supported the efforts of the U.N. Secretary-General in continuing the Black Sea Grain Initiative.
- The World Food Programme (WFP) has shipped more than 725,000 tonnes to support humanitarian operations relieving hunger in some of the hardest-hit corners of the world, including Afghanistan, Horn of Africa and Yemen.
- N. Secretary-General Highlighted the initiative ensured the safe passage of over 32 million metric tonnes of food commodities from Ukrainian ports.
Black Sea Grain Initiative:
- The initiative was negotiated by the United Nations (UN) and Turkey and was signed in Istanbul in July 2023.
- Initially stipulated for a period of 120 days, with an option to extend or terminate thereafter in November.
- It aims to provide a safe maritime humanitarian corridor for Ukrainian exports (particularly for food grains) from three of its key ports, namely, Chornomorsk, Odesa and Yuzhny/Pivdennyi.
- The central idea was to calm markets by ensuring an adequate supply of grains, thereby limiting food price inflation.
- Ukraine is among the largest exporters of wheat, maize, rapeseed, sunflower seeds and sunflower oil globally. Its access to the deep-sea ports in the Black Sea enables it to directly approach Russia and Europe along with grain importers from the Middle East and North Africa.
Other broad features of the initiative:
- The deal put in place a Joint Coordination Centre (JCC) comprising senior representatives from Russia, Turkey, Ukraine and the UN for oversight and coordination.
- All commercial ships are required to register directly with the JCC to ensure appropriate monitoring, inspection and safe passage.
- Inbound and outbound ships (to the designated corridor) transit as per a schedule accorded by the JCC post-inspection. This is done so as to ensure there is no unauthorised cargo or personnel onboard. Following this, they are allowed to sail onwards to Ukrainian ports for loading through the designated corridor.
- All ships, once inside the Ukrainian territorial waters, are subject to the nation’s authority and responsibility.
- Moreover, in order to avoid provocations and untoward incidents, it is mandated that monitoring be done remotely. No military ships or unmanned aerial vehicles can approach the corridor closer than a pre-decided distance agreed upon by the JCC. This, too, would require consultation with the parties and authorisation of the JCC.
- In the event of non-compliance or suspicious activities, upon the request of a party, the JCC would provide assistance to the crew or conduct an inspection against security guarantees.
5. HENLEY PASSPORT INDEX
TAG: GS 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
THE CONTEXT: India has climbed seven places on the Henley Passport Index 2023 to 80th rank from 87 last year though the number of countries allowed visa-free access to Indian passport holders remains unchanged.
EXPLANATION:
Findings of the ranking:
- Progress of India: In 2014, India ranked 76 with 52 countries allowing Indian passport holders visa-free access, but its performance has not been linear. It ranked 88 in 2015 (visa-free access to 51 countries), 85 in 2016, 87 in 2017, 81 in 2018, 82 in 2019 and 2020, and 81 in 2021.
- Japan, which occupied the top position on the Henley Passport Index for five years, dropped to the third place. It was replaced by Singapore, which is now officially the most powerful passport in the world, with its citizens able to visit 192 travel destinations out of 227 around the world visa-free.
- Germany, Italy, and Spain occupy the second place. Alongside Japan in the third position are Austria, Finland, France, Luxembourg, South Korea, and Sweden.
- The U.K. climbed two places to occupy the fourth place, while the U.S. continued its decade-long slide down the index, dropping two places to the eighth spot.
- The Top 20 ‘most open’ countries are all small island nations or African states, except for Cambodia.
- There are 12 completely open countries that offer visa-free or visa-on-arrival entry to all 198 passports in the world, namely: Burundi, Comoro Islands, Djibouti, Guinea-Bissau, Maldives, Micronesia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Samoa, Seychelles, Timor-Leste, and Tuvalu.
About the Index:
- The Henley Passport Index is the ranking of all the world’s passports according to the number of destinations their holders can access without a prior visa.
- The Index is brought out by Henley and Partners. It started in 2006 as Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index (HVRI) and was changed and renamed in January 2018.
- The index is based on exclusive data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and enhanced by Henley & Partners’ research team.
- The Henley Passport Index compares the visa-free access of 199 different passports to 227 travel destinations.
- All destinations that are in the IATA database are considered by the index.
- The number of countries that a specific passport can access becomes its visa-free “score”.
- If no visa is required, then a score with value = 1 is created for that passport. The same applies if you can obtain a visa on arrival, a visitor’s permit, or an electronic travel authority (ETA) when entering the destination.
- Where a visa is required, or where a passport holder has to obtain a government-approved electronic visa (e-Visa) before departure, a score with value = 0 is assigned. This also applies if you need pre-departure government approval for a visa on arrival.
- The total score for each passport is equal to the number of destinations for which no visa is required (value = 1).
International Air Transport Association (IATA):
- IATA was formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, which was formed in 1919 in The Hague, Netherlands. At its founding, IATA consisted of 57 airlines from 31 countries.
- It is headquartered in Montreal, Canada, with executive offices in Geneva, Switzerland.
- IATA has been described as a cartel; in addition to setting technical standards for airlines, IATA also organized tariff conferences that served as a forum for price fixing.
- It consists of 300 airlines, primarily major carriers, representing 117 countries; the IATA’s member airlines account for carrying approximately 83% of total available seat miles air traffic.
- IATA supports airline activity and helps formulate industry policy and standards.
