THE CONTEXT:In a remarkable turn of events, the sighting of a tiger in West Bengal’s Buxa National Park, after a prolonged absence of 23 years, has sparked optimism among conservationists.
EXPLANATION:
Recent camera trap footage captured the tiger crossing a dry riverbed, marking its return.
Conservation experts attribute this comeback to various factors, including the augmentation of the tiger’s prey base, expansion of the grassland, and stringent measures to minimize human interference in the park’s core areas.
Buxa Tiger Reserve: Spanning 760 square kilometers in North Bengal’s Alipurduar district, Buxa Tiger Reserve is crucial for wildlife conservation, boasting corridor connectivity with Bhutan’s forests to the north, as well as linkages with Kochugaon forests, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam, and Jaldapara National Park.
Conservation Initiatives and Habitat Improvement
Forest officials and conservationists have undertaken commendable efforts to enhance the habitat within Buxa.
Measures include reducing human interference, augmenting the grassland, and bolstering the prey base.
The introduction of spotted deer, with 200 newly introduced in the past year and a total of 900 in recent years, has substantially contributed to enriching the prey population.
Additionally, efforts to increase grassland cover by 70 hectares annually and the creation of watering holes have further facilitated a conducive environment for the tigers’ return.
Human Interference Control and Relocation
Efforts to curb infiltration and trespassing have contributed significantly to creating an environment conducive to wildlife, particularly tigers.
Plans are underway to relocate villages from the core area of the reserve, which aims to minimize human presence further and create a more favorable environment for the big cats.
Collaborative Conservation Projects
The “Tiger Augmentation and Monitoring Project,” a collaborative initiative by the state forest department, Wildlife Institute of India, and the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
It was introduced in 2018 and has played a pivotal role in reviving tiger populations in Buxa.
This project focused on various measures to bolster tiger populations and monitor their movements in the region.
Regional Impact and Future Prospects
Experts suggest that the increase in tiger populations in neighboring Assam’s Manas Tiger Reserve and Bhutan’s forests has contributed to tigers venturing into Buxa.
Connectivity between Bhutan and Buxa serves as a conduit for tigers seeking new habitats.
With decreased human disturbances due to controlled poaching activities and human interactions, the region is becoming more conducive for tigers to thrive.
There are also plans to introduce nine tigers from external sources, fostering hopes of further bolstering the tiger population in the region.
Conclusion: Positive Outlook for Conservation
The resurgence of tiger sightings in Buxa National Park marks a promising milestone in wildlife conservation efforts.
It underscores the success of habitat restoration initiatives, increased prey availability, and strict measures to limit human disturbances.
This development not only holds significance for Buxa but also contributes to the broader landscape of tiger conservation efforts in the region, fostering hope for the resurgence of tiger populations in areas where they were once scarce.
INTEGRATION OF BRAIN-LIKE TISSUE AND ELECTRONICS IN ORGANOID NEURAL NETWORKS
TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
THE CONTEXT:Scientists have accomplished a significant breakthrough by merging brain-like tissue with electronics, establishing an ‘organoid neural network.’
EXPLANATION:
This innovation represents an extension of neuromorphic computing, where computers are modelled after the human brain, by directly integrating brain tissue into computing systems.
The collaborative effort involved researchers from Indiana University, the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Centre, and the University of Florida.
The study, published in December, has wide-ranging implications for multiple scientific and engineering disciplines.
Challenges in Current AI and Neuromorphic Computing
This separation results in increased time and energy demands as data needs to be continually transferred between these units.
Scientists have been striving to enhance neuromorphic chips, but these solutions only partially emulate brain functions and necessitate improvements in processing capability and energy efficiency.
Biological Neural Networks and Biocomputing
The study delves into biocomputing, leveraging biological components for computational tasks.
While prior research has exhibited promising strides, such as training brain cells to play video games, this recent study surpasses previous achievements.
It integrates brain organoids, three-dimensional brain cell aggregates derived from human pluripotent stem cells, into a functional ‘organoid neural network.’
The Reservoir Computer: Brainoware
This ‘organoid neural network’ constitutes a reservoir computer, comprising input, reservoir, and output layers.
The brain organoid, connected to microelectrodes, acts as the reservoir.
It receives electrical stimulation as input signals, processes these through its network of live brain cells, and interfaces with the output layer, enabling the readout and interpretation of neural activity through computer hardware.
Computational Abilities and Comparative Analysis
Brainoware demonstrated proficiency in predicting complex mathematical functions like the Henon map and distinguishing voiced Japanese vowels.
While slightly less accurate than artificial neural networks with short-term memory, it showcased comparable accuracy with significantly reduced training requirements.
For instance, Brainoware achieved similar accuracy to artificial neural networks with only a fraction of their training epochs.
Scientific Implications and Ethical Considerations
The study provides foundational insights into learning mechanisms, neural development, and cognitive implications related to neurodegenerative diseases.
However, it also raises ethical considerations regarding the consciousness and dignity of organoids.
Further refinements are required in optimizing input encoding methods, maintaining organoid uniformity, and addressing complex computing tasks.
Ethical debates continue regarding the ethical treatment of organoids and their potential consciousness.
Conclusion: Future Prospects
Despite existing limitations and ethical quandaries, this research marks a pioneering step in harnessing brain organoids for adaptive reservoir computing.
The study’s innovative proof-of-concept lays the groundwork for further exploration and advancements in organoid intelligence, promising potential breakthroughs in computational neuroscience and AI.
SHIPPING’S PREFERENCE FOR GREEN HYDROGEN-BASED METHANOL OVER AMMONIA
TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
THE CONTEXT:As per the report of the International Energy Agency (IEA), Despite an upcoming crunch in available biogenic CO2 for e-methanol, extra costs for ammonia-fuelled vessels may swing the balance in the short term.
EXPLANATION:
Green ammonia and methanol, derived from renewable hydrogen, are envisioned as potential fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the shipping sector.
Despite the perceived advantages of ammonia, such as lower production costs compared to methanol, there are several cost-related and logistical challenges influencing the preference for methanol in the short term.
Cost Disparities between Methanol and Ammonia
The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that methanol has been predominantly used in maritime operations due to existing orders and infrastructure.
It can be significantly more expensive than ammonia—estimated to be 25-100% costlier.
The primary cost difference arises from the need for captured CO2 to ensure carbon-neutrality in methanol production.
CO2 Sourcing Challenges and Cost Implications
The sourcing of captured CO2 from biogenic sources or direct air capture directly impacts the cost of green methanol.
High-concentration biogenic sources like fermentation offer a more cost-effective supply compared to low-concentration sources like flue gases from biomass-fired power plants.
Capturing CO2 from industrial sources can add 25-40% to the cost of methanol production compared to renewable ammonia.
Availability and Limitations of Biogenic CO2
While there’s an existing supply of biogenic CO2 from sources like bioethanol plants, the projected demand for CO2 from shipping and other sectors exceeds the available biogenic sources.
This mismatch raises concerns about meeting the necessary CO2 supply for methanol production, potentially limiting the scale of e-methanol plants.
Challenges in Handling and Safety
Safety considerations also impact the choice between methanol and ammonia.
Handling ammonia requires additional safety measures due to its toxicity at lower concentrations, leading to increased costs for infrastructure and safety protocols aboard ships.
Methanol, while covered in safety guidelines, presents fewer challenges in this aspect.
Total Cost of Ownership and Retrofitting Challenges
The total cost of ownership for ships using either fuel, assuming low-cost biogenic CO2 sources, indicates a 75% increase compared to vessels using traditional fossil-based fuels.
Retrofitting ships to accommodate these new fuels involves substantial costs, and retrofitting feasibility depends on a vessel’s age and the specific fuel chosen.
Investment Needs and Market Share
Converting a significant portion of the shipping fleet to ammonia or methanol-powered vessels demands substantial investment.
Retrofitting costs and operational considerations dictate that only relatively newer vessels are suitable, posing a challenge to fleet conversion efforts.
Conclusion
Despite the higher production costs of green methanol compared to ammonia, factors like safety considerations, CO2 sourcing challenges, and retrofitting costs are influencing shipping companies to favour methanol in the short term.
The scale-up of e-fuel production, sourcing of CO2, safety considerations, and significant investments required for fleet conversion pose substantial challenges that necessitate careful planning and policy support for the maritime sector’s decarbonization efforts.
PEACE PACT WITH ULFA: HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND IMPLICATIONS
TAG: GS 3: INTERNAL SECURITY
THE CONTEXT:The pro-talks faction of United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) signed a tripartite peace deal with the Indian government and the Assam government in December 2023.
EXPLANATION:
This memorandum of settlement entails various provisions, including renouncing violence, disarming, disbanding armed activities, vacating occupied camps, and participating in democratic processes.
The agreement emphasizes Assam’s development with an investment of ₹1.5 lakh crore.
It also addresses political demands, boundary disputes, and the representation of indigenous communities in the Assam Assembly.
Formation of ULFA and Its Objectives
The United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) emerged as a consequence of the Assam Agitation that started in 1979, culminating in the Assam Accord of August 1985.
The fear of indigenous communities in Assam being displaced by “illegal immigrants” from Bangladesh sparked this movement.
While social organizations and students protested, a faction of radicals including Arabinda Rajkhowa, Anup Chetia, and Paresh Baruah formed the ULFA on April 7, 1979.
The group aimed to establish a sovereign Assam and engaged in an armed struggle, undergoing training in countries like Myanmar, China, and Pakistan.
The Journey of Conflict and Insurgency
ULFA’s militant activities included abductions and executions, prompting a government response with Operation Bajrang in 1990, leading to the group’s ban. Assam was declared a disturbed area under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act.
Counter-insurgency operations led to the arrest of many ULFA members in the early 1990s.
Some ULFA members surrendered in 1992, forming the Surrendered ULFA (SULFA), but allegations surfaced of their involvement in “secret killings.”
Meanwhile, ULFA hardliners collaborated with external terror groups and sought refuge in Bangladesh and Bhutan, facing military action in 2003 and 2009, respectively.
Ups and Downs in Peace Initiatives
The ULFA vacillated between peace initiatives and renewed violence. It formed a People’s Consultative Group in 2005, signaling a willingness for peace, but later reverted to insurgent activities.
In 2009, the Rajkhowa-led faction signed a ceasefire with the Indian government, while the anti-talks faction, led by Paresh Baruah, remained opposed to negotiations, resulting in a split within ULFA.
The anti-talks group renamed itself ULFA (Independent) in 2013.
Challenges Ahead
Despite the signing of the accord, challenges remain due to the presence of the anti-talks faction led by Paresh Baruah, operating from hideouts in Myanmar’s Sagaing Division.
Baruah insists on discussing Assam’s sovereignty, which the government rejects, emphasizing Assam’s commitment to India.
The government aims to convince Baruah for negotiations while acknowledging that peace remains incomplete without his group’s participation.
Conclusion
The peace pact with the ULFA’s pro-talks faction marks a significant step towards resolving Assam’s prolonged insurgency.
However, challenges persist with the presence of the anti-talks faction led by Paresh Baruah.
The success of the agreement hinges on the government’s commitment to implementation and its ability to engage with the remaining insurgent faction to achieve lasting peace in Assam.
THE CONTEXT:Recent research suggests that variations in CO2 levels among neighbouring planets could offer clues about a planet’s potential habitability, particularly in relation to the presence of liquid water.
EXPLANATION:
The presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) in a planet’s atmosphere has been studied extensively due to its role in absorbing infrared radiation, a factor contributing to rising temperatures on Earth.
Significance of CO2 Absorption
CO2 in a planet’s atmosphere functions as a significant absorber within the infrared region of the light spectrum.
This property contributes to the greenhouse effect and subsequent temperature elevation observed on Earth.
A lead researcher in exoplanetology, highlights that measuring CO2 levels within planetary atmospheres provides crucial data for identifying potential liquid water sources.
Identifying Planetary Habitability
The research, led by the University of Birmingham in the UK and MIT in the US, introduces a novel ‘habitability signature.’
This signature revolves around assessing CO2 disparities among planets, suggesting a potential absorption of this gas by oceans or its isolation via planetary-scale biomass.
The habitability zones around stars define regions where planets can maintain conditions suitable for liquid water on their surfaces.
Planets falling within these zones—neither too close nor too far from their host stars—are deemed potentially habitable.
Comparing CO2 concentrations across planets offers insights into potential liquid water presence.
Lower CO2 levels relative to neighbouring planets indicate the likelihood of oceans or biomass influencing CO2 absorption, hinting at the capacity to support life.
CO2, Earth’s Evolution, and Habitability
Earth’s history serves as an example, having transitioned from an atmosphere dominated by CO2 to one conducive to life due to carbon dissolution in oceans over billions of years.
This evolution points to the possibility of similar processes occurring on other habitable planets.
Environmental Tipping Points and Uninhabitability
Examining CO2 levels on other planets provides a platform to understand environmental tipping points.
For instance, Venus, despite resembling Earth in some aspects, became uninhabitable due to exceedingly high carbon levels in its atmosphere, hinting at potential past climatic tipping points.
CO2 as a Biosignature
The devised ‘habitability signature’ extends beyond merely assessing potential liquid water sources.
It can serve as a biosignature, indicating the presence of life. Living organisms’ carbon consumption often results in the emission of oxygen, which can transform into ozone.
Detecting both CO2 and ozone simultaneously can provide evidence of habitability and potential life on a planet.
Conclusion
This innovative method of analyzing CO2 levels among planets offers a promising approach to identifying habitable environments and potential signs of life beyond Earth.
Understanding the relationship between CO2, liquid water, and potential biosignatures can provide invaluable insights into the habitability of exoplanets and the search for extraterrestrial life.
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Question 1 of 5
1. Question
1. Consider the following statements with respect to earthquake waves:
1. S-waves cannot pass through fluids.
2. P-waves travel about 10 times faster than S-waves.
3. Rayleigh waves cause most of the damage from an earthquake.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Correct
Answer: B
Context:
• Statement 1 is correct: P- Waves can pass through air, solid and liquid while S-waves can pass through the solids only.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: P-waves are 1.7 times faster than S-waves.
• Statement 3 is correct: Rayleigh waves cause the maximum damage from an earthquake.
Additional Information
Earthquake Waves-
• Two main terms: Focus and Epicentre
• The rock rupture or sudden breakage of rocks deep within the crust at a point or place is known as focus or hypocenter, and the point on the Earth’s surface located vertically above the focus is termed as epicentre.
• The depth of focus from the epicentre, called as focal depth, is an important parameter in determining the potential damage of an Earthquake.
• The vibrations or seismic waves radiate from this point of rupture or focus, and are propagated up to the Earth’s surface.
There are two types of waves: Body waves and Surface waves released during an Earthquake.
Primary Waves:
• P wave is the fastest kind of seismic wave and first to arrive at a seismic station that can be recorded on the Seismograph.
• This can move through solid rock, liquids and gases.
• P waves are “push and pull” waves like sound waves, which pushes and pulls the air in each particle vibrating to and fro in the direction of propagation.
• These are also known as compressional or longitudinal waves.
• P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s.
• The precise speed varies according to the region of the Earth’s interior, from less than 6 km/s in the Earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle, and 11 km/s through the inner core.
• P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.
Secondary Waves:
• The second type of body waves is the S wave or secondary wave which appears only after the P waves have arrived.
• These are transverse or shear waves, in which the motion of each particle is at right angle to the direction of propagation.
• S waves can pass only through solid rock and move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side-perpendicular to the direction of the wave travels.
• Both P and S waves travel through the body of the Earth hence, they are called as body waves.
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses.
Surface waves are two types: Love waves and Rayleigh waves.
Love wave:
It is the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side in horizontal motion.
Rayleigh waves:
• They are much larger than the other waves move the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction of wave.
• It rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across the ocean or lake.
• Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave.
Incorrect
Answer: B
Context:
• Statement 1 is correct: P- Waves can pass through air, solid and liquid while S-waves can pass through the solids only.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: P-waves are 1.7 times faster than S-waves.
• Statement 3 is correct: Rayleigh waves cause the maximum damage from an earthquake.
Additional Information
Earthquake Waves-
• Two main terms: Focus and Epicentre
• The rock rupture or sudden breakage of rocks deep within the crust at a point or place is known as focus or hypocenter, and the point on the Earth’s surface located vertically above the focus is termed as epicentre.
• The depth of focus from the epicentre, called as focal depth, is an important parameter in determining the potential damage of an Earthquake.
• The vibrations or seismic waves radiate from this point of rupture or focus, and are propagated up to the Earth’s surface.
There are two types of waves: Body waves and Surface waves released during an Earthquake.
Primary Waves:
• P wave is the fastest kind of seismic wave and first to arrive at a seismic station that can be recorded on the Seismograph.
• This can move through solid rock, liquids and gases.
• P waves are “push and pull” waves like sound waves, which pushes and pulls the air in each particle vibrating to and fro in the direction of propagation.
• These are also known as compressional or longitudinal waves.
• P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s.
• The precise speed varies according to the region of the Earth’s interior, from less than 6 km/s in the Earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle, and 11 km/s through the inner core.
• P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.
Secondary Waves:
• The second type of body waves is the S wave or secondary wave which appears only after the P waves have arrived.
• These are transverse or shear waves, in which the motion of each particle is at right angle to the direction of propagation.
• S waves can pass only through solid rock and move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side-perpendicular to the direction of the wave travels.
• Both P and S waves travel through the body of the Earth hence, they are called as body waves.
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses.
Surface waves are two types: Love waves and Rayleigh waves.
Love wave:
It is the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side in horizontal motion.
Rayleigh waves:
• They are much larger than the other waves move the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction of wave.
• It rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across the ocean or lake.
• Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave.
Question 2 of 5
2. Question
2. Consider the following statements:
1. Oases are depressions of varying sizes in desert regions.
2. Rainwater is the main source of water in oases.
3. Oases help in supporting a settled life in desert regions.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
Correct
Answer: B
Explanation:
• Statement 1 is correct: In the desert, oases are the natural depressions of varying sizes. In these depressions, the underground water reaches the surface. So, statement 2 is incorrect.
• They are typically supplied by groundwater or springs and temporary rivers can also sustain some oases to desert depressions.
• Statement 3 is correct: Oases act as natural spring in the hostile desert and thus support a settled life. The oasis people live in mud-brick houses with flat roofs, closely packed together. A planned settlement with a suq (central market place), the mosque, school and shopping blocks. eg. Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco.
Incorrect
Answer: B
Explanation:
• Statement 1 is correct: In the desert, oases are the natural depressions of varying sizes. In these depressions, the underground water reaches the surface. So, statement 2 is incorrect.
• They are typically supplied by groundwater or springs and temporary rivers can also sustain some oases to desert depressions.
• Statement 3 is correct: Oases act as natural spring in the hostile desert and thus support a settled life. The oasis people live in mud-brick houses with flat roofs, closely packed together. A planned settlement with a suq (central market place), the mosque, school and shopping blocks. eg. Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco.
Question 3 of 5
3. Question
3. Consider the following pairs:
Places in news – Countries involved
1. Rafah crossing – Armenia-Azerbaijan border
2. Zangezur corridor – Columbia-Panama border
3. Darien gap – Gaza-Egypt border
How many of the above given pairs are correctly matched?
Correct
Answer: D
Explanation:
Pair 1 is matched incorrectly:
Rafah crossing:
• Rafah crossing is in news due to ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict.
• In the wake of Israel’s blockade of the Gaza Strip following the October 7 attack by Hamas, the Rafah border crossing with Egypt has become a crucial point for civilians seeking to enter or leave Gaza.
• This crossing, unlike others, is not controlled by Israel.
Pair 2 is matched incorrectly:
Zangezur corridor: In news due to ongoing Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict.
• Zangezur, which is currently part of southern Armenia, has been a disputed territory since World War I.
• Under the communist Soviet Union, the area, which is located between Baku’s Nakhchivan autonomous region and Azerbaijan, became part of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). Today, Armenia considers the area its Syunik province.
• The Zangezur Corridor runs through Azerbaijan and Armenia territories reaching Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan’s autonomous region, which neighbours Türkiye.
• The corridor is part of a strategic transportation route extending from the Azerbaijani capital, Baku, to Kars, Türkiye’s eastern province, passing through Armenian territory near the country’s border with Iran.
Pair 3 is matched incorrectly:
• Darien gap is a geographic region in the Isthmus of Panama connecting the American continents within Central America.
• It is consisting of a large watershed, forest, and mountains in Panama’s Darién Province and the northern portion of Colombia’s Chocó Department.
Incorrect
Answer: D
Explanation:
Pair 1 is matched incorrectly:
Rafah crossing:
• Rafah crossing is in news due to ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict.
• In the wake of Israel’s blockade of the Gaza Strip following the October 7 attack by Hamas, the Rafah border crossing with Egypt has become a crucial point for civilians seeking to enter or leave Gaza.
• This crossing, unlike others, is not controlled by Israel.
Pair 2 is matched incorrectly:
Zangezur corridor: In news due to ongoing Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict.
• Zangezur, which is currently part of southern Armenia, has been a disputed territory since World War I.
• Under the communist Soviet Union, the area, which is located between Baku’s Nakhchivan autonomous region and Azerbaijan, became part of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). Today, Armenia considers the area its Syunik province.
• The Zangezur Corridor runs through Azerbaijan and Armenia territories reaching Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan’s autonomous region, which neighbours Türkiye.
• The corridor is part of a strategic transportation route extending from the Azerbaijani capital, Baku, to Kars, Türkiye’s eastern province, passing through Armenian territory near the country’s border with Iran.
Pair 3 is matched incorrectly:
• Darien gap is a geographic region in the Isthmus of Panama connecting the American continents within Central America.
• It is consisting of a large watershed, forest, and mountains in Panama’s Darién Province and the northern portion of Colombia’s Chocó Department.
Question 4 of 5
4. Question
4. With reference to the Shaligram Stones, a sacred stone worshipped by Hindus, consider the following statements:
1. These stones are fossils of ammonite, which is a type of mollusc that lived millions years ago.
2. These are mostly found in the rivers flowing in the Vindhya Range.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Correct
Answer: A
Explanation:
Statement 1 is correct:
• The Ram Temple in Ayodhya is a much-awaited landmark in Hindu religion, with the idol of Lord Ram and Sita to be carved out of a special stone known as the Shaligram Stone.
• Anthropologist Holly Walters In her book, ‘Shaligram Pilgrimage in the Nepal Himalayas’,has written that shaligram stones are fossils of ammonite, which is a type of mollusc that lived between 400 million and 65 million years ago.
• Referring to a Geological Survey of India publication from 1904, Walters wrote that shaligram stones “date specifically from the Early Oxfordian to the Late Tithonian Age near the end of the Jurassic Period some 165-140 million years ago”.
Statement 2 is incorrect:
• These stones are mostly found in riverbeds or banks of the Kali Gandaki, a tributary of the Gandaki River in Nepal.
• These stones are revered by Hindus who believe it to be a representation of Lord Vishnu.
• According to Hindu mythology, Lord Vishnu was cursed to become the shaligram stone for “betraying the chastity of the goddess Tulsi”.
Incorrect
Answer: A
Explanation:
Statement 1 is correct:
• The Ram Temple in Ayodhya is a much-awaited landmark in Hindu religion, with the idol of Lord Ram and Sita to be carved out of a special stone known as the Shaligram Stone.
• Anthropologist Holly Walters In her book, ‘Shaligram Pilgrimage in the Nepal Himalayas’,has written that shaligram stones are fossils of ammonite, which is a type of mollusc that lived between 400 million and 65 million years ago.
• Referring to a Geological Survey of India publication from 1904, Walters wrote that shaligram stones “date specifically from the Early Oxfordian to the Late Tithonian Age near the end of the Jurassic Period some 165-140 million years ago”.
Statement 2 is incorrect:
• These stones are mostly found in riverbeds or banks of the Kali Gandaki, a tributary of the Gandaki River in Nepal.
• These stones are revered by Hindus who believe it to be a representation of Lord Vishnu.
• According to Hindu mythology, Lord Vishnu was cursed to become the shaligram stone for “betraying the chastity of the goddess Tulsi”.
Question 5 of 5
5. Question
5. Consider the following statements regarding the ‘Theri’ desert:
1. It is a part of the larger Thar Desert.
2. Southwest monsoon play an important role in the formation of red dunes in this desert.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Correct
Answer: B
Explanation:
Statement 1 is incorrect:
Theri Desert:
• It is a small desert situated in the state of Tamil Nadu.
• It consists of red sand dunes and is confined to the Thoothukudi district.
• The red dunes are called theri in Tamil.
• They consist of sediments dating back to the Quaternary Period (which began 2.6 million years ago) and are made of marine deposits.
• They have very low water and nutrient retention capacity.
• The dunes are susceptible to aerodynamic lift. This is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the opposite of weight.
Statement 2 is correct:
Formation of Theri desert:
• Theory 1: Theri appear as gentle, undulating terrain. The lithology (the study of general physical characteristics of rocks) of the area shows that the area might have been a paleo (ancient) coast in the past. The presence of limestone in many places indicates marine transgression.
• Theory 2: The present-day theris might have been formed by the confinement of beach sand locally, after regression of the sea. When high velocity winds from the Western Ghats blew east, they induced migration of sand grains and accumulation of dunes.
• Theory 3: Another view is that these are geological formations that appeared in a period of a few hundred years.
• There is a lot of red sand spread over these theris.
• The red sand is brought from the surface of a broad belt of red loam in the plains of the Nanguneri region (about 57 kilometres from this area in Tirunelveli district) by south west monsoon winds during May-September.
Additional Information
Mineral Composition of Theri:
• The petrographical study (petrography is the study of composition and properties of rocks) and X-ray diffraction analysis (a method used to determine a material’s crystallographic structure) of the red sand dunes reveal the presence of heavy and light minerals.
• These include Ilmenite, Magnetite, Rutile, Garnet, Zircon, Diopside, Tourmaline, Hematite, Goethite, Kyanite, Quartz, Feldspar, and Biotite.
• The iron-rich heavy minerals like ilmenite, magnetite, garnet, hypersthene, and rutile present in the soil had undergone leaching by surface water and were then oxidized because of the favorable semi- arid climatic conditions.
• It was due to these processes that the dunes near Tiruchendur, a coastal town of the Thoothukudi district are red-colored.
Incorrect
Answer: B
Explanation:
Statement 1 is incorrect:
Theri Desert:
• It is a small desert situated in the state of Tamil Nadu.
• It consists of red sand dunes and is confined to the Thoothukudi district.
• The red dunes are called theri in Tamil.
• They consist of sediments dating back to the Quaternary Period (which began 2.6 million years ago) and are made of marine deposits.
• They have very low water and nutrient retention capacity.
• The dunes are susceptible to aerodynamic lift. This is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the opposite of weight.
Statement 2 is correct:
Formation of Theri desert:
• Theory 1: Theri appear as gentle, undulating terrain. The lithology (the study of general physical characteristics of rocks) of the area shows that the area might have been a paleo (ancient) coast in the past. The presence of limestone in many places indicates marine transgression.
• Theory 2: The present-day theris might have been formed by the confinement of beach sand locally, after regression of the sea. When high velocity winds from the Western Ghats blew east, they induced migration of sand grains and accumulation of dunes.
• Theory 3: Another view is that these are geological formations that appeared in a period of a few hundred years.
• There is a lot of red sand spread over these theris.
• The red sand is brought from the surface of a broad belt of red loam in the plains of the Nanguneri region (about 57 kilometres from this area in Tirunelveli district) by south west monsoon winds during May-September.
Additional Information
Mineral Composition of Theri:
• The petrographical study (petrography is the study of composition and properties of rocks) and X-ray diffraction analysis (a method used to determine a material’s crystallographic structure) of the red sand dunes reveal the presence of heavy and light minerals.
• These include Ilmenite, Magnetite, Rutile, Garnet, Zircon, Diopside, Tourmaline, Hematite, Goethite, Kyanite, Quartz, Feldspar, and Biotite.
• The iron-rich heavy minerals like ilmenite, magnetite, garnet, hypersthene, and rutile present in the soil had undergone leaching by surface water and were then oxidized because of the favorable semi- arid climatic conditions.
• It was due to these processes that the dunes near Tiruchendur, a coastal town of the Thoothukudi district are red-colored.
THE CONTEXT: The International Monetary Fund recently in its report raised concerns about India’s sovereign debt, i.e. the total debt burden on the Union plus State governments. It has sparked critical reactions from the Indian Government.
IMF RECENT REPORT:
IMF’s annual Article IV consultation report, which is part of the Fund’s surveillance function under the Articles of Agreement with member countries has been released. It made two observations:
1. It has raised concerns about the long-term sustainability of India’s debts.
2. It reclassified India’s exchange rate regime and termed it as a “stabilised arrangement” instead of “floating”.
The report also acknowledged India’s effective inflation management and projected a balanced outlook for India’s economic growth.
The IMF states that India’s general government debt, including the Centre and States, could be 100% of GDP under adverse circumstances by fiscal 2028.
It stated “long-term risks are high because considerable investment is required to reach India’s climate change mitigation targets and improve resilience to climate stresses and natural disasters.
GLOBAL TRENDS OF DEBT:
The United Nations, notes that the countries are forced to make the difficult decision between providing for their citizens and paying off their debt. It states, in 2022, 3.3 billion people live in countries that spend more on interest payments than on education or health.
Global public debt: Global public debt has increased more than fourfold since 2000, outpacing global GDP, which tripled over the same period. In 2022, global public debt reached a record USD 92 trillion.
Rise of debt in developing countries: Public debt has increased faster in developing countries compared to developed countries over the last decade. Developing countries accounted for almost 30% of the total, of which roughly 70% is attributable to China, India and Brazil. The number of countries facing high levels of debt increased from 22 in 2011 to 59 in 2022. The rise of debt in developing countries is due to growing development financing needs intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic, the cost-of-living crisis, and climate change.
Asymmetricdebt: The burden of debt is asymmetric between developed and developing countries as the latter even without considering the costs of exchange rate fluctuations have to pay higher interest rates than the former. For example, the countries in Africa borrow on average at rates that are four times higher than those of the United States and even eight times higher than those of Germany. This higher borrowing costs undermines debt sustainability of developing countries. The number of countries where interest spending represents 10% or more of public revenues increased from 29 in 2010 to 55 in 2020.
THE CHALLENGE FOR INDIA:
1. Credit ratings
S&P Global Ratings states that Credit ratings are forward-looking opinions about the ability of debt issuers, like corporations or governments to meet their financial obligations on time.
They provide transparent global language for investors and other market participants and is one of the inputs which is considered as part of their decision-making processes.
Elevated debt levels and substantial costs associated with servicing debt impact credit rating.
Even being the fastest growing economy, India faces the challenge of enhancing its credit ratings. Sovereign investment ratings for India have remained the same for a long time.
Both Fitch Ratings and S&P Global Ratings have kept India’s credit rating unchanged at ‘BBB- with stable outlook’. It should be noted that BBB- is the lowest investment grade rating and India has been on that scale since August 2006.
India’s credit ratings are undermined by the
1. government’s weak fiscal performance
2. burdensome debt stock
3. India’s low per capita income
2. Managing public debt:
India is facing challenge of managing public debt to ensure that it does not breach sustainable levels.
The weight of debt can act as a drag on development due to limited access to financing, rising borrowing costs, currency devaluations and sluggish growth.
a). Breach of FRBM target:
The 2018 amendment to the Union government’s FRBM Act specified debt-GDP targets for the Centre, States and their combined accounts at 40%, 20% and 60%, respectively.
The central government’s debt was ₹155.6 trillion, or 57.1% of GDP, at the end of March 2023 and the debt of State governments was about 28% of GDP.
Finance Ministry stated that India’s public debt-to-GDP ratio has increased from 81% in 2005-06 to 84% in 2021-22 and is back to 81% in 2022-23. This is way higher than the levels specified by the FRBM Act.
These high levels of debt-GDP ratio can be attributed to the disruptions due to the pandemic, which resulted in a major deterioration in the debt-GDP ratios.
b). Fiscal slippage:
There are worrying signs on the fiscal fronts as well. Despite growth in tax collections, there is the possibility of a fiscal slippage in FY24, according to a report by India Ratings and Research (IR&R).
IR&R attributes this to higher expenditure on employment guarantee schemes and subsidies.
For example, Budgeted fertilizer subsidy of ₹44,000 crore was almost over by end-October 2023 and the Union government has now increased fertilizer subsidy to ₹57,360 crore.
Similarly, due to sustained demand for employment under MGNREGA, a sum of ₹79,770 crore has already been spent till December 19, 2023, as against the budgeted ₹60,000 crore and an additional sum of ₹14,520 crore has been allocated through the first supplementary demand for grants.
THE WAY FORWARD:
Need of fiscal corrections: There is a need for fiscal correction particularly in this election year to avoid worst-case scenarios.
Debt sustainability: To manage and achieve the debt sustainability, there is a need for more prudent management of debt in the medium term. It can be done by narrowing the gap between expenditure and tax revenues as well as increasing the efficacy of our expenditures and increasing revenues.
Human capital: India needs to spend considerably more on public funds for enhancing human capital, i.e. on primary healthcare and primary education. Also, there is a need to fund research and innovation via public universities. This suggests that new and preferably concessional sources of financing are needed including greater private sector investment in this scenario.
Government borrowing: The government borrowings can play a vital role in accelerating development, as governments can use it to finance their expenditures and invest in people to pave the way for a better future.
THE CONCLUSION:
There is increasing concerns regarding the rise of global debt as it has potential implications for economic stability and the capacity of financial systems. Thus, there is a need to strike the right balance between debt accumulation and economic growth.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
Q.1 Do you agree that the Indian economy has recently experienced V-shaped recovery? Give reasons in support of your answer. (2021)
Q.2 The public expenditure management is a challenge to the Government of India in the context of budget-making during the post-liberalization period. Clarify it. (2019)
MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION
Q.1 Rising global debt levels often raise concerns about debt sustainability, especially in the case of government debt driven by reckless borrowing for populist programs. Discuss with specific reference to the Indian scenario.
PIL CHALLENGES NEW LAW ON APPOINTMENT OF CHIEF ELECTION COMMISSIONER (CEC) AND ELECTION COMMISSIONERS (ECs)
TAG: GS 2: POLITY
THE CONTEXT: A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is filed in the Supreme Court challenging the legality and provisions of a new law altering the process of appointing the Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners.
EXPLANATION:
The PIL seeks an independent and transparent system of selection, contesting the amendment’s deviation from the Supreme Court’s previous order and the exclusion of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) from the selection committee.
Background of Contention:
Amendment and Selection Process:
The new law empowers the central government with significant authority to appoint the CEC and ECs, excluding the CJI from the selection committee.
Opposition Accusations:
The opposition alleges that the government disregarded the Supreme Court’s directive by removing the CJI from the selection panel, citing a violation of the court’s March 2023 order.
PIL’s Grounds and Key Assertions:
Independent and Transparent System:
The advocate filing the PIL seeks the implementation of an impartial and transparent system for the selection process, advocating for a neutral and independent selection committee.
Constitutional Inquiry:
The PIL raises the constitutional query of whether Parliament or a legislative assembly holds the jurisdiction to nullify or amend a judgment previously issued by the Supreme Court, especially when stemming from a Constitution Bench ruling.
Inclusion of CJI in the Selection Committee:
The plea requests the inclusion of the CJI in the committee responsible for appointing the CEC and ECs, aiming to reinstate the CJI’s role in the process.
Challenges to the New Act:
Gazette Notification Challenge:
The PIL seeks an injunction against the implementation of the Gazette Notification of December 28, 2023, pertaining to the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Condition of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023.
Contention on Parliament’s Authority:
The plea questions whether the Parliament or legislative assembly possesses the authority to amend or nullify a prior judgment issued by the Supreme Court, especially from a Constitution Bench.
Provisions in the Act and Proposed Changes:
Formation of Search Committee:
The Act stipulates the creation of a search committee chaired by the Union Law Minister, tasked with nominating a panel of five individuals for consideration by the selection committee for the CEC or ECs.
Exclusion of CJI:
The amended law omits the CJI from the selection committee, deviating from the Supreme Court’s earlier directive which included the CJI, the Prime Minister, and the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
Election Commission of India:
The Election Commission of India consists of a Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners (ECs).
The CEC is the head of the Commission and has a higher status than the ECs. All decisions of the Commission are taken by a majority vote, with the CEC having the casting vote in case of a tie.
According to Article 324, the Election Commission shall consist of the CEC and such number of other election commissioners, if any, as the President may from time-to-time fix.
Babasaheb Ambedkar had in 1949 said, “the whole election machinery should be in the hands of a Central Election Commission, which alone would be entitled to issue directives to returning officers, polling officers and others”.
Article 324(2): The appointment of the CEC and other Election Commissioners shall be made by the President, subject to the provisions of any law made in that behalf by Parliament.
The Law Minister suggests a pool of suitable candidates to the Prime Minister for consideration.
The President makes the appointment on the advice of the PM.
TENURE:
The President appoints Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners.
They have tenure of six years, or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
They enjoy the same status and receive salary and perks as available to Judges of the Supreme Court of India.
All Election Commissioners have equal say in the decision making of the Commission.
Conclusion:
The PIL challenging the recent law amendment for appointing the CEC and ECs underscores concerns regarding transparency, the constitutional authority to modify court directives, and the exclusion of the CJI from the selection process.
The outcome of this legal challenge will potentially impact the method and impartiality of future appointments to critical electoral positions in the country.
EXPANSION OF BRICS: INCLUSION OF NEW MEMBERS AND RUSSIA’S CHAIRMANSHIP AGENDA
TAG: GS 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
THE CONTEXT: Recently, there has been an announcement regarding the expansion of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) by including Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates as full members.
EXPLANATION:
It marks a significant development in the composition and global role of the grouping.
Additionally, Russia assuming the BRICS presidency in 2024 underlines its intentions and priorities for the organization’s future direction.
BRICS Expansion and Membership Dynamics:
New Member Inclusions:
The entry of Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates expands BRICS from five to ten member nations, signifying a substantial enlargement of the group.
Strategic Significance:
This expansion aims to bolster BRICS’ strategic weight in global affairs, counterbalancing Western dominance, and fostering a multipolar international order.
Principles and Goals:
The new members align with BRICS’ principles of sovereign equality, openness, consensus, and the aspiration for a multipolar global order and fair financial systems, as outlined by Russian President.
BRICS Evolution and Russian Chairmanship:
Formation and Evolution:
BRICS originated in 2006 as BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) and expanded in 2010 with South Africa’s inclusion.
It now represents a significant segment of the global economy.
Russia’s Leadership:
Russia President highlighted Russia’s 2024 BRICS chairmanship’s motto of ‘strengthening multilateralism for equitable global development and security,’ emphasizing cooperation and integration of new members.
Agenda and Priorities:
Russia’s presidency aims to promote cooperation in politics, security, economics, finance, culture, and humanitarian fields.
The focus includes science, technology, healthcare, environmental protection, culture, and sports.
Future Strategies and Collaborations:
Inclusive Approach:
Russia President expressed openness to engaging approximately 30 other countries interested in joining BRICS discussions, exploring a new category for partner countries.
Policy Coordination:
Enhanced foreign policy coordination among member nations to address global challenges and regional stability issues remains a priority.
Planned Events and Culmination:
Russia plans to host over 200 events across different cities, culminating in the BRICS Summit in Kazan in October, highlighting the collaborative efforts and partnerships envisioned during the chairmanship.
Conclusion:
The expansion of BRICS to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates as full members underscores the organization’s growing influence and commitment to a multipolar world order.
With Russia’s presidency, BRICS aims to foster cooperation across various sectors and nations, prioritizing multilateralism, global development, security, and cultural exchange.
The upcoming events and the BRICS Summit in Kazan will serve as pivotal moments for the organization’s collaborative endeavors and partnerships among member and interested nations.
SCRAPPING OF FREE MOVEMENT REGIME ALONG INDIA-MYANMAR BORDER
TAG: GS 3: INTERNAL SECURITY
THE CONTEXT: The decision by the Indian government to abolish the Free Movement Regime (FMR) along the India-Myanmar border signifies a shift in border policies, impacting cross-border movements and relationships between the two nations.
Initiated in the 1970s and last revised in 2016, the FMR allowed citizens residing within 16 km on either side of the India-Myanmar border to cross with a border pass, fostering familial and ethnic ties between communities in border regions.
Reasons for Scrapping FMR:
Border Security Measures:
The government aims to enhance border security by implementing fencing along approximately 300 km of the unfenced border, intending to curb illegal crossings and strengthen surveillance.
Addressing Concerns:
Despite anticipated opposition from states like Nagaland and Mizoram, the central government emphasizes border security as its jurisdiction and intends to engage with Myanmar while considering regional concerns.
Impact on Border Communities:
Visa Requirement:
Once the FMR is abolished, individuals residing in border areas will need visas to cross over, which might disrupt the ease of movement previously enjoyed by border communities.
Ethnic and Familial Ties:
The decision may impact familial and ethnic relationships, as many people have historical connections on both sides of the border, leading to potential disruptions in social and economic interactions.
COVID-19 and Suspension of FMR:
The Manipur government suspended the FMR in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Chief Minister advocated for its cancellation, attributing ethnic violence in the state to unrestricted movement across the border.
Impact of Myanmar’s Political Situation:
Following the military coup in Myanmar in February 2021, an influx of undocumented migrants occurred, with thousands seeking refuge in Indian states like Mizoram and Manipur, particularly those belonging to the Kuki-Chin-Zo ethnic group.
Geopolitical and Border Statistics:
India shares a 1,643 km-long border with Myanmar, traversing through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram, playing a crucial role in regional dynamics and cross-border relationships.
Conclusion:
The decision to end the Free Movement Regime at the India-Myanmar border reflects the government’s emphasis on border security.
While intending to curb illegal crossings and enhance surveillance, this decision may also impact the socio-economic fabric of border communities, affecting familial ties and cultural exchanges that have thrived for decades.
Balancing security concerns with historical relationships will be crucial in navigating the implications of this policy change.
THE CONTEXT: Leap years, occurring every four years, introduce an additional day to the calendar—February 29.
EXPLANATION:
This adjustment is crucial in aligning the calendar year with the Earth’s solar orbit.
Understanding the history, purpose, and nuances of leap years illuminates their significance in timekeeping.
Leap Year:
A leap year consists of 366 days instead of the regular 365.
The additional day, February 29, occurs every four years in most cases.
A solar year—365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds—is the time Earth takes to complete an orbit around the Sun.
Rounding off the year to 365 days necessitated the introduction of leap years.
The need for leap years arose to compensate for the additional time in Earth’s orbit.
Without this adjustment, seasonal cycles would gradually shift, causing confusion in agriculture and timekeeping.
Historical Introduction of Leap Year:
Julius Caesar’s scholars introduced leap years in 46 BC to align the calendar with astronomical events.
Further refinements occurred in 12 AD to ensure greater accuracy in timekeeping.
The Julian calendar included a 366th day every four years.
However, the method was slightly inaccurate, as the calculation of 6 hours for a leap day differed from the actual 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds of extra time.
In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII rectified the discrepancy accumulated in the calendar by eliminating ten days.
October 4 was succeeded by October 15 to align the calendar with the solar year more accurately.
Not every year divisible by four was designated a leap year.
Specifically, years ending in ’00’ were excluded, except those divisible by 400. Hence, 1900 wasn’t a leap year, but 2000 was.
The Gregorian calendar’s adjustment to have only ’00’ years divisible by 400 as leap years aims to maintain synchronization between the calendar and the Earth’s orbit.
Conclusion:
Leap years play a vital role in harmonizing the human-made calendar with the astronomical solar year.
Historical adjustments and refinements have been made to ensure accuracy, aligning the calendar with Earth’s orbital cycle.
Understanding the significance and evolution of leap years aids in comprehending the complexities of timekeeping and calendar systems.
SNOW LEOPARD: NATIONAL SYMBOL OF KYRGYZSTAN AND ITS CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE
TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
THE CONTEXT: Kyrgyzstan, a Central Asian country, has designated the snow leopard as its national symbol, emphasizing its cultural significance, ecological role, and the importance of preserving its habitat.
EXPLANATION:
Cultural and Symbolic Importance:
In Kyrgyz culture, the snow leopard holds historical significance, symbolizing greatness, nobility, courage, bravery, and resilience.
It is tied to the story of Manas, a Kyrgyz folk hero, as depicted in the Epic of Manas.
Legend attributes the snow leopard as the totem animal of the great Manas, symbolizing harmony between humans and nature.
A globally acclaimed Kyrgyz writer portrayed the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature, embodied by the snow leopard, in his novel “When Mountains Fall.”
Presidential Decree and Objectives:
President of Kyrgyzstan signed a decree recognizing the snow leopard as the national symbol of Kyrgyzstan on December 30, 2023.
The decree emphasizes the snow leopard’s importance as a symbol of natural wealth, cultural prosperity, and as an indicator of ecosystem stability in the mountainous regions that cover 1/3 of the global territory.
It directs the Cabinet of Ministers to safeguard the snow leopard’s population and ecosystem, create a logo, define its usage at various levels, and establish its ideological content.
Conservation Efforts and Collaboration:
The decree calls for collaboration among ministries and agencies to promote snow leopard conservation, implement protective measures, attract green investments, and leverage the symbol for responsible tourism.
The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP), consisting of 12 snow leopard range countries, institutions, NGOs, scientists, and local communities, is actively involved in efforts to protect the species and its habitat.
The snow leopard’s significance extends beyond cultural symbolism.
It plays a crucial role in maintaining the fragile ecological balance of the High Asia region, known as the ‘Third Pole.’
High Asia, comprising various mountain ranges like the Altai, Tian Shan, Himalayas, and others, is a vital water source, supplying clean water to one-third of the world’s population.
Climate change impacts this region profoundly, with warming occurring at nearly twice the average rate in the Northern Hemisphere.
Global Conservation Initiatives:
Snow leopard conservation gained momentum with the Bishkek Declaration on Snow Leopard Protection, adopted unanimously at the World Snow Leopard Conservation Forum in 2013.
Kyrgyzstan’s recognition of the snow leopard as its national symbol reflects its commitment to preserving this enigmatic big cat and its fragile mountain ecosystem.
The efforts outlined in the presidential decree underscore the need for collaborative conservation actions to safeguard the snow leopard’s population and its critical habitat in High Asia.
This initiative aligns with global conservation endeavors aimed at protecting this iconic species and ensuring the ecological stability of the ‘Third Pole’ region.