THE CONTEXT: Knowledge is a critical determinant of economic growth, social development, and overall well-being. In today’s global economy, knowledge is a key driver of innovation, competitiveness, and productivity. Access to knowledge, however, is unequally distributed around the world. The gap between developed and developing countries in terms of knowledge resources is vast. Developed countries have well-established educational systems, research institutions, and technological infrastructure that enable them to generate, disseminate, and apply knowledge more effectively. In contrast, developing countries often lack the resources and infrastructure to produce and utilize knowledge effectively, which hinders their economic and social development.

HOW KNOWLEDGE INDUCES INEQUALITY

• Education inequality: Access to quality education is a key factor in reducing global inequality. However, education inequality exists globally, with some populations lacking access to basic education, let alone higher education.
• Digital divide: In the digital age, access to information technology and the internet is crucial for access to knowledge. However, the digital divide remains a significant issue, with many low-income communities lacking access to these resources.
• Language barriers: Knowledge production is often concentrated in English, limiting access to knowledge for non-English speaking populations and perpetuating global inequality.
• Research and development (R&D) inequality: Research and development activities are primarily concentrated in developed countries, creating disparities in the types of knowledge produced and accessible to different populations.
• Scientific infrastructure: The scientific infrastructure necessary for knowledge production is also concentrated in developed countries, creating disparities in access to scientific research and data.
• Patent laws: Patent laws and intellectual property rights can limit access to knowledge and technology, particularly for low-income populations.
• Brain drain: Highly skilled individuals often migrate from low-income countries to high-income countries, creating a brain drain that can limit knowledge production and perpetuate global inequality.
• Knowledge production bias: Knowledge production is often biased towards the interests of developed countries, limiting the types of knowledge produced and accessible to different populations.
• Access to healthcare knowledge: Access to healthcare knowledge is crucial for improving global health outcomes. However, healthcare knowledge is often concentrated in developed countries and limited in availability for low-income populations.
• Cultural barriers: Cultural differences can create barriers to the transfer of knowledge across populations, limiting access to knowledge and perpetuating global inequality.
• Access to financial knowledge: Financial knowledge is critical for economic empowerment and improving global economic outcomes. However, financial knowledge is often limited in availability for low-income populations.
• Access to legal knowledge: Access to legal knowledge is important for promoting human rights and justice. However, legal knowledge is often concentrated in developed countries, limiting access for low-income populations.
• Access to environmental knowledge: Access to environmental knowledge is crucial for promoting sustainability and mitigating the impacts of climate change. However, environmental knowledge is often limited in availability for low-income populations.
• Gender bias: Gender bias in knowledge production and access can limit the participation of women and girls in the global economy, perpetuating global inequality.
• Access to cultural knowledge: Access to cultural knowledge is important for promoting cultural diversity and understanding. However, cultural knowledge is often limited in availability for populations outside of their cultural heritage.

GEOGRAPHY AS DESTINY:  THE DOMINANCE OF GLOBAL NORTH

• The Global North has been able to invest more in research and development (R&D) than the Global South, which has resulted in the creation of new technologies and products that have given them a competitive edge. For example, in 2018, the US spent $581 billion on R&D, while the entire continent of Africa spent only $20.8 billion on R&D.
• The Global North has been able to develop and control essential technologies, such as those related to communication, transportation, and energy, which has given them a significant advantage over the Global South. For instance, the US controls a significant portion of the global internet infrastructure, including key domain name systems and routing technologies, which has enabled them to dominate the digital economy.
• The Global North’s technological superiority has enabled them to dominate global markets and extract resources from the Global South. For instance, many multinational corporations based in the Global North have outsourced production to the Global South, where labor costs are cheaper. This has resulted in the exploitation of workers in the Global South and the extraction of resources from these countries without fair compensation.
• The Global North’s technological superiority has enabled them to maintain their dominance in international institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which have helped to perpetuate global inequality. For example, the TRIPS agreement of the WTO grants monopolies to pharmaceutical companies, making essential medicines unaffordable to many people in the Global South.
• The Global North’s technological superiority has enabled them to maintain their military dominance, which has allowed them to exert political influence and control over the Global South. For instance, the US spends more on defence than the next ten countries combined, which has allowed them to intervene in the affairs of other countries and maintain global hegemony.

TRENDS OF CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE IN GLOBAL ECONOMY AS A RESULT OF KNOWLEDGE

The role of knowledge has been a critical factor in shaping the trends of convergence and divergence in the global economy over time. Knowledge encompasses various aspects, including technological advancements, innovation, education, and human capital development.

CONVERGENCE AND KNOWLEDGE

• The period from 1870 to 1913 saw a trend of convergence in the global economy, and knowledge played a critical role in this process. The spread of knowledge, particularly technological advancements, transportation and communication networks, and education, helped other regions, particularly North America and parts of Europe, to catch up with Western Europe in terms of economic growth and development. “The diffusion of knowledge was a key factor behind convergence, as regions that were able to adopt new technologies and ideas from more advanced regions experienced higher levels of economic growth and development.”
• Similarly, the period from 1945 to 1980 saw another trend of convergence, which was driven by the spread of knowledge, particularly in East Asia. The governments of many East Asian countries invested heavily in education and human capital development, and this helped to build a highly skilled workforce and support the development of new technologies and innovations. As a result, these countries experienced rapid economic growth and development, narrowing the gap with more advanced Western economies.

DIVERGENCE AND KNOWLEDGE

• The period from 1750 to 1870 saw a trend of divergence in the global economy, and the lack of access to knowledge was a critical factor behind this process. Western Europe’s technological advancements and innovations were driven by its scientific and educational institutions, which were more advanced than those in other regions. The lack of access to knowledge and education hindered the growth and development of other regions, particularly Asia and Africa, contributing to the widening economic gap between Europe and the rest of the world.
• Similarly, the period from 1980 to the present day has seen a trend of divergence, which has been driven by the uneven distribution of knowledge. While some regions, particularly in East Asia, have continued to experience rapid economic growth and development, others, particularly in Africa, have lagged behind. The uneven distribution of knowledge and access to technology has contributed to this divergence, as many African countries have struggled to keep up with more advanced economies.

ANALYSIS OF THE ABOVE FACT

The above illustration discusses the historical context of the Great Divergence, where per capita income in China and India fell relative to Western Europe and its offshoots, accompanied by a decline in their share of world manufacturing, while Western Europe’s share increased dramatically. This led to the Great Specialisation, where Europe and its offshoots specialised in manufacturing and the rest of the world in agriculture and primary raw material production.

However, post-1970, there has been some convergence, particularly in East Asia, with countries like China, South Korea, and Japan increasing their per capita GDP in comparison with industrialised countries. East Asia’s share of world manufactured exports also grew significantly during this period. South Asia, on the other hand, saw slower growth in its per capita GDP relative to industrialised countries. Overall, while there has been some convergence, it has not been significant, and there is still a large gap in per capita income between Western Europe and its offshoots and Asia.

MONOPOLY-CUM-MONOPSONY CAPITALISM

• The contemporary structure of capitalism is characterized by monopolies, particularly those based on intellectual property rights (IPR) protection. Monopolies aim to capture profits higher than those available in competitive conditions, leading to increased inequality. This monopolization of knowledge exists alongside commoditized knowledge in the commons of manufacturing or production.
• The global structure of production is reflected in Global Value Chains (GVCs), where there is a separation between conception and execution through outsourcing and offshoring. This leads to a monopsony relationship between lead firms and their suppliers, particularly those in the global South.
• There are different degrees of monopsony power in these relations. Knowledge monopolies, such as technology and healthcare companies, dominate the world economy, with eight of the world’s 10 largest corporations by market capitalization being knowledge-intensive corporations. GVCs and the platform economy are forms of monopoly–monopsony capitalism that dominate international trade and global economic relations.

WHAT WILL BE IMPACT OF MONOPOLY-CUM-MONOPSONY CAPITALISM: A CASE FOR ANALYSIS

What is the consequence of the structure of world trade and the global economy on the distribution of profits between headquarter firms and supplier firms in GVCs? Provide some examples.

• The consequence of the structure of world trade and the global economy on the distribution of profits between headquarter firms and supplier firms in GVCs is that headquarter firms with monopolized knowledge earn a high profit while suppliers with commoditized knowledge secure only competitive profits.
• This is illustrated by the fact that headquarter firms, such as US garment brands (Ralph Lauren and Levi Strauss), electronics enterprises (Apple, Cisco, and Intel), and consultancy leaders (IBM and Accenture), had gross profit margins ranging from 40% to 60%, while suppliers such as Indian garment manufacturers had margins in the range of 10% to 12%.
• Additionally, European headquarter firms, such as Zara, H&M, Adidas, C&A, and L-V, also had gross margins ranging from 50% to 66%.
• In electronics manufacture, contract electronics manufacturers have low margins, at or below 5%. In IT services production, the knowledge requirements are more complex than both of the above types, and those in IT services supply with records of delivering and supporting complex IT services have developed reputational assets that would increase their bargaining power. The 30% gross profit margins of Infosys and TCS are at least somewhat comparable with those in the global North. But overall, based on the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) data, the gross profit margins of the Indian supplier firms (garments, leather, auto-components, pharmaceuticals, and IT services) range from a low of 6% in garments to 14% in IT services.

THE WAY FORWARD

Reducing global inequality in knowledge and information can be a complex task that involves a combination of various strategies, policies, and actions. Here are some possible ways to address this issue:

• Education: Education is one of the most powerful tools for reducing global inequality. Providing access to quality education and promoting lifelong learning can help to bridge the knowledge gap between different countries and communities.
• Technology: Advancements in technology have made it easier to share information and knowledge globally. Governments, NGOs, and other organizations can leverage technology to provide access to vital information and resources to communities that lack them.
• Open access to information: Ensuring open access to information is essential in reducing global inequality in knowledge. Governments and other stakeholders can promote policies that make information available to everyone.
• Empowering communities: Empowering communities to take charge of their own development can help to reduce global inequality in knowledge. This includes providing resources, tools, and training that enable communities to take advantage of information and knowledge resources.
• Collaboration: Collaboration between governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders can help to reduce global inequality in knowledge. This includes sharing resources, expertise, and knowledge to address the challenges faced by different communities.

THE CONCLUSION: Overall, reducing global inequality in knowledge and information requires a multi-faceted approach that involves various stakeholders working together to provide access to quality education, technology, and open access to information. By addressing these issues, we can create a more equitable and sustainable future for all.

Questions:

1. Discuss the impact of knowledge induced global inequality.
2.  The knowledge divide has created divide historically and it has potential to increase it manyfold. Analyse

THE CONTEXT: The Supreme Court, in its recent judgement delivered on the 16^th of August, has widened the legal definition of a family, ruling that family benefits be extended to same-sex couples, blended families and other families the court considers “atypical.”The decision establishes a precedent to further India’s easing of the conservative (and anti-LGBTQ +) laws from the colonial era. “Familial relationships may take the form of domestic, unmarried partnerships or queer relationships,” the court stated, adding that the law “must not be relied upon to disadvantage families which are different from traditional ones.” In this article, we will analyse the issue in detail.

KEY HIGHLIGHTS OF THE JUDGEMENT

• The SC ruled that atypical families were as deserving of both legal protection and benefits of social welfare legislation as traditional families.
• The conformation to the heteronormativity of the term ‘family’ leaves out a section of our population from enjoying various facets of life. Certain laws in India are non-accommodative of emerging modern families.
• The Supreme Court observed that atypical families were as deserving of both legal protection and the benefits of social welfare legislation as traditional families. Structural as well as attitudinal changes are essential for the progress of the family system.
• Equality is not achieved with the decriminalisation of homosexuality alone but must extend to all spheres of life, including the home, the workplace, and public places. Till today, the LGBTQ + community remains closed off to civil rights.

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT LAWS

SAME-SEX MARRIAGES

• The Supreme Court of India has decriminalised homosexuality by partially striking down section 377 of the IPC.
• Same-sex couples now have the legal right to cohabit and conduct their personal affairs without any fear of persecution, but the law does not permit same-sex marriages in India yet.
• Denial of the basic legal right to marry based on sexual orientation is objectionable and unconstitutional, violating the constitutional rights of the right to equality and liberty.
• LGBTQ + people do not get legal and social recognition as well as the state benefits that married people enjoy.

ADOPTION

• In India, adoption is governed by both secular as well as personal laws. For Hindus, there is the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, of 1956 (HAMA), and for other religions, there is the Juvenile Justice Care and Protection of Children Act, 2015.
• The latter Act is secular and allows adoption regardless of the religion of the person. Adoption laws discriminate against LGBTQ + couple. According to regulation 5(3) of the Adoption Regulation Act, 2017, the words “‘husband” and “wife” are used and do not recognise the right to adoption in the case of same-sex couples.
• There is a different set of adoption rules applied in the case of men and women, and thus the applicability of such laws with regard to trans-couples will lead to ambiguity.
• There is no clarity about how the adoption laws shall operate if a person undergoes a sex change. Same-sex couples are not allowed to adopt a child and there are no laws for the same.

SURROGACY

• The new surrogacy bill passed in Parliament prohibits single people and LGBTQ+ to have their own children through surrogacy.
• This new bill reiterates the notions of the “archaic family system” which is not in sync with new modern families.
• The essentials of the bill are so stringent that even a heterosexual couple cannot fulfil the requisite condition. The essentials of the bill are so stringent that even a heterosexual couple cannot fulfil the requisite conditions.

INHERITANCE LAWS

• Hindus are governed by the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, while Muslims and Parsis have their own customary laws and then there is an Indian Succession Act, 1925 which applies to all Indians who are married under the Special Marriage Act, 1954.
• Gender is irrelevant when it comes to inheritance, inheritance happens based on nearness, but then inheritance laws are restricted only to heterosexual marriages. So, to apply the principles of inheritance to the LGBTQ + community, it is essential to recognise the concept of same-sex marriage.
• There have been constant demands for the legal recognition of Hijra families, especially after the NALSA judgement.
• However, the law continues to undermine the legal existence of such families firstly in the subsequent versions of the Private Member Bills in 2014 and then after the passing of the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, in 2019.
• The language of laws should be made completely gender-neutral so that even transgender people or the person who undergoes sex change shall face no discrimination in inheritance.

MATERNITY BENEFITS

• At present, the Maternity Benefit Act of 1961 provides maternity leaves and benefits only to cisgender women who give birth, adopt, or rely on surrogacy to have a child.
• There are two implications of this law.
• Firstly, it reiterates the same archaic ideas and notions that it is the sole responsibility of the mother to take care of and nurture the child while the father can be waived this duty. Secondly, it does not take into cognisance the fact that there can be a possibility of alternative families such as the LGBTQIA + families.
• Therefore, it is essential that the language of this law must be gender-neutral so that even LGBT + families can also have access to parental benefits and further, it can also serve as a progressive step in the direction to eliminate gender biases reinforced by the maternity benefit legislation. Indian society is still very conservative when it comes to marriage.

THE WAY FORWARD

• Indian society is still very conservative when it comes to marriage. Indians are still not able to accept inter-caste marriages, therefore, accepting same sex marriage is still too far fetched, but this cannot be a valid justification to deny the whole LGBTQ + community the right to marry.
• Reform for LGBTQ + inclusion cannot be complete without a law recognising the concept of “families of choice”. Family laws remain exclusionary because they do not account for gender beyond the binary and the many diverse forms of relationships that exist in a society, which may or not be based on conjugality. Some of the restrictions can now be potentially challenged under the robust framework of equality and non-discrimination that has been recognised.
• The LGBTQ community needs an anti-discrimination law that empowers them to build productive lives and relationships irrespective of gender identity or sexual orientation and places the onus to change on the state and society and not the individual.
• Government bodies, especially those related to Health and Law and Order need to be sensitised to ensure that the LGBTQ community is not denied public services or harassed for their sexual orientation.

THE CONCLUSION: Though there are many judgments to mention the role of the judiciary in upholding the rights of the LGBT community, there are challenges to implementing these judgments in letter and spirit. Judiciary played its role, and now government and society has to play their role by giving rights and acceptance to the LGBT community.

QUESTION FOR MAINS EXAMINATION:

Q1. “Same-sex parents and other “atypical” or non-traditional families in India are now eligible for the same social benefits as “traditional” families”. Discuss in light of the recent judgement by the Supreme Court.

Q2. Examine the role played by the judiciary in protecting and promoting the rights of the LGBT community.

SOCIAL ISSUES AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

1. JHARKHAND’S FIRST SURVEY OF MIGRANTS

TAGS: GS-II- SOCIAL ISSUES AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

THE CONTEXT: Around 8.5 lakh migrants returned to their home state, Jharkhand, during the COVID crisis. To help these migrants with a good livelihood, the State Government of Jharkhand started the State and Responsible Migration Initiative in 2021.

THE EXPLANATION:

• Creating a robust database of the migrants in the state is a part of this initiative. To achieve this, the Jharkhand Government recently launched the first survey of Migrants. Jharkhand is not the only state to launch such states. Several other states like Tamil Nadu and Punjab had already launched such surveys.

About the Survey

• The survey is to be conducted in 24 districts. Officers will knock on the doors of 11,000 households to take the survey
• The survey outputs will be used to create a state-level policy
• The survey will also help the State in identifying the cause of migration.

Why the Jharkhand people are leaving the state?

• The survey will find out the factors influencing migration in the state
• During the survey, the officers will talk to community leaders to get a greater insight into the problem
• The survey has blocks of questions to understand and decipher the issue. They are household characteristics, incoming migrants, outgoing migrants, quality of life of migrants, understanding the mindset of migrants, etc.
• The survey will also collect details on the nature of work the migrants are expecting and what is the role of women in the household and in the earnings.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

2. WHAT IS THE INDUS WATER TREATY?

TAGS: PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE-GS-II-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

THE CONTEXT: India recently issued a notice to Pakistan for modification of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).

THE EXPLANATION:

About Indus Water Treaty:

• It was signed in September 1960 between India and Pakistan.
• The treaty was brokered by the World Bank, which too is a signatory to the treaty.
• The treaty fixed and delimited the rights and obligations of both countries concerning the use of the waters of the Indus River system.
• It gives control over the waters of the three “eastern rivers’ — the Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej — to India, while control over the waters of the three “western rivers’ ‘ — the Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum — to Pakistan.
• The treaty allows India to use the western river waters for limited irrigation use and unlimited non-consumptive use for such applications as power generation, navigation, floating of property, fish culture, etc.
• It lays down detailed regulations for India in building projects over the western rivers.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

3. LUCY MISSION

TAGS:PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE-GS-III- SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: NASA recently announced that it is adding a new target for the Lucy mission as the spacecraft goes on its more than 6-billion-kilometre-long journey to study the Jupiter trojan asteroids.

THE EXPLANATION:

About Lucy Mission:

• NASA’s Lucy mission is the first spacecraft launched to explore the Trojan asteroids, a population of primitive asteroids orbiting in tandem with Jupiter.
• Lucy was successfully launched Oct. 16, 2021, and will visit eight asteroids over 12 years — one asteroid in the main belt between Mars and Jupiter, and seven Trojan asteroids leading and trailing Jupiter in its orbit.

 What are Trojan Asteroids?

• Asteroids sharing an orbit with a planet, but which are located at the leading (L4) and trailing (L5) Lagrangian points, are known as Trojan asteroids.
• These asteroids occupy a stable Lagrangian point in a planet’s orbit around the Sun.
• Trojan Asteroids are some of the oldest remnants from the formation of our solar system 5 billion years ago.
• There are currently over 4,800 known Trojan asteroids associated with Jupiter.
• They orbit the Sun in two loose groups: one group leading ahead of Jupiter in its orbit, the other trailing behind at the same distance from the Sun as Jupiter.
• Due to the combined gravitational influences of the Sun and Jupiter, these Trojan asteroids have been trapped on stable orbits (around what is known as the Lagrange Points) for billions of years.

 What is a Lagrange point?

• Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two body system like the Sun and the Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
• The Lagrange Points are positions where the gravitational pull of two large masses precisely equals the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them.
• These can be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in position.

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES AND INITIATIVES IN NEWS

4. EXTENDED REALITY (XR) STARTUP PROGRAM

TAGS:PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE-GS-II- GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS

THE CONTEXT:The Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MeitY), and Meta have recently announced the list of 120 startups and innovators for the Extended Reality (XR) Startup Program.

THE EXPLANATION:

About Extended Reality (XR) Startup Program:

• The XR Startup Program is a collaboration between Meta and MeitY Startup Hub (MSH).
• Aim: To accelerate India’s contribution towards building the foundations of the metaverse and nurturing the development of Extended Reality (XR) technologies in India.
• It includes two segments namely; an Accelerator and a Grand Challenge.

Accelerator:

• The Accelerator will nurture and foster 40 early-stage startups working with XR technologies through a well-designed 6-month program.
• Each startup will get access to many benefits, including a grant of ₹ 20,00,000, mentorship by industry experts and researchers, access to a network of potential strategic partners and investors, technology and infrastructure support, and opportunities to participate and present at relevant industry events.

Grand Challenge:

• The Grand Challenge is aimed at supporting early-stage innovators to upscale from the R&D phase to developing workable prototypes and Minimum Viable Products (MVPs).
• It will encourage early-stage innovators in sectors like Education, Learning and Skills, Healthcare, Gaming and Entertainment, Agritech& Climate Action and Tourism & Sustainability.
• It will include 4 sector-specific challenges to advance the XR technology ecosystem in India.
• A total of 80 shortlisted innovators will receive a grant of ₹ 50,000 and an opportunity to attend the boot camp.
• Of the 80 shortlisted innovators, 16 innovators will be supported with grants worth ₹ 20,00,000 to help them develop MVP(s)/ prototypes.

5. NATIONAL TECHNICAL TEXTILES MISSION

TAGS:PRELIMS PERSPECTIVE-GS-II- GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS

THE CONTEXT:Recently, The Union Minister of Textiles cleared 15 R&D projects across key strategic areas such as Speciality fibre, Protective textiles, High-Performance Textiles , Medical Textiles etc under the National Technical Textiles Mission.

THE EXPLANATION:

What are Technical Textiles?

• Technical Textiles are textile products which are manufactured primarily for their functionality and use rather than aesthetic appeal.
• Technical textiles are classified into 12 major groups based on their application areas namely;Agrotech, Geotech, Buildtech, Mobiltech, Hometech, Clothtech, Indutech, Meditech, Sportstech, Protech, Packtech, Oekotech.

Key features of the National Technical Textiles Mission India

• The Ministry of Textiles has launched NTTM to increase the penetration level of technical textiles in India while leveraging the extraordinary growth rate of the sector.
• The mission aims to position India as a global leader in Technical Textiles.
• The mission will comprise the following four components:
• Research, Innovation and Development
• Promotion and Market Development
• Export Promotion
• Education, Training, Skill Development
• Implementation:It has been approved with an implementation period of four years starting from FY 2020-21 till FY 2023-24. The total outlay of the mission is INR 1480 Cr.