TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: In a recent development, the Rajasthan state government’s notification regarding the classification of sacred groves, known as orans, as deemed forests has triggered apprehension among local communities, especially in western Rajasthan.

EXPLANATION:

• The notification, released on February 1, 2024, follows the directives of the Supreme Court, intending to confer deemed forest status upon orans, Dev-vans, and Rundhs.

Local Opposition and Concerns:

• Cultural and Religious Significance:
  • Villagers, represented by the ‘Gauchar Oran Sanrakshak Sangh Rajasthan,’ are opposing the decision, emphasizing the cultural and religious significance of orans in their lives.
• Lack of Consultation:
  • Locals claimed that the government did not consult the local community before proposing the orans under the deemed forest category, raising concerns about potential adverse impacts on their access and livelihoods.
• Livelihood Dependence:
  • The communities rely on orans for cattle herding, pastures, sustenance, and various forest products.
  • Approximately 5,000 camels and 50,000 sheep depend on the Degray oran in Savata village alone.
• Fear of Displacement:
  • There is a fear among villagers that if the state forest department takes control, they may be forced to vacate the land, impacting their homes, places of worship, and daily activities.

Legal Perspectives:

• Definition of Deemed Forests:
  • Deemed forests are areas exhibiting forest-like characteristics but are not officially recorded or notified in government or revenue records.
  • The Supreme Court, in the TN Godavarman case of 1996, directed state governments to identify and protect such lands.
  • These lands, including deemed forests, fall under Section 2 of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, prohibiting certain activities without central government permission.
• Community Rights:
  • It is emphasized that the designation of orans as deemed forests does not restrict community access for activities like grazing or worship.

Expert Recommendations:

• Need for Clarity: Rajasthan government should provide clear information about what a ‘deemed forest’ entails and how it will impact the rights of the local communities in traditionally conserved areas.
• Assurance of Rights: The government should address the concerns raised by the people and assure them that their rights within these conservation areas will not be compromised.

Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023:

• The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023 amends the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 to make it applicable to certain types of land.
• These include land notified as a forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or in government records after the 1980 Act came into effect.
• The Act will not be applicable for land converted to non-forest use before December 12, 1996.
• It also exempts certain types of land from the purview of the Act.
• These include land within 100 km of India’s border needed for national security projects, small roadside amenities, and public roads leading to a habitation.
• The state government requires prior approval of the central government to assign any forest land to a private entity.
• The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023 extends this to all entities, and allows the assignment to be made on terms and conditions specified by the central government.
• The Act specifies some activities that can be carried out in forests, such as establishing check posts, fencing, and bridges. The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023 also allows running zoos, safaris and eco-tourism facilities.

Sacred Grove:

• Sacred groves are communally protected forests which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community.
• The Sacred Groves comprises of patches of forest or natural vegetation that are usually dedicated to local folk deities.
• Indian sacred groves are often associated with temples, monasteries, shrines or with burial grounds.
• Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.
• Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis.
• The introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which include sacred groves.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/forests/villagers-oppose-declaring-orans-as-deemed-forests-fearing-loss-of-access-and-livelihood-94834

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: The Supreme Court, in a landmark decision on March 4, highlighted the pivotal role of elected legislators in a democratic polity.

EXPLANATION:

• The Constitution Bench emphasized that the representative character of Parliament and State legislatures could be compromised if Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) faced harassment or intimidation while performing their duties.
• Chief Justice of India, speaking for the seven-judge Bench, underscored the essential link between deliberative democracy and the freedom of elected legislators to express their views on the floor of the House.
• The ability of legislators to discuss and debate matters without fear of coercion or intimidation was deemed a fundamental aspect of a parliamentary form of government.

Overruling Previous Judgment on Legislative Immunity:

• The judgment overruled a significant 1998 decision in the JMM bribery case that granted legislators immunity from prosecution in case of bribery.
• The current Bench clarified that parliamentary privilege and immunity would only be invoked if legislators faced threats of prosecution for their official actions or speeches given in the House, aimed at enhancing the dignity and authority of the legislature.

Limited Scope of Legislative Privilege:

• The Bench delineated the boundaries of legislative privilege, specifying that it would only extend as far as necessary for the effective functioning of the House.
• The court emphasized that these privileges were not a blanket immunity from criminal law but were essential to enable legislators to fulfill their duties without fear of legal repercussions.

Freedom of Speech: A Crucial Legislative Privilege:

• Chief Justice emphasized the paramount importance of freedom of speech in the functioning of legislative institutions.
• The ability of MPs and MLAs to express their opinions in Parliament and its committees was deemed a “necessary privilege” crucial for the effective discharge of their duties.
• The court recognized this freedom as core to the democratic legislative process.

Extension of Speech to Voting Rights:

• The court further extended its protection of freedom of speech to the act of voting by legislators.
• It asserted that a member of Parliament’s vote was an extension of their speech, emphasizing the interconnectedness of various legislative activities in safeguarding democratic values.

Constitutional Safeguards for Legislative Independence:

• The judgment positioned the freedom of elected representatives as a constitutionally secured right, essential for preserving the democratic essence of the legislative process.
• It underscored that the privilege and immunity granted to legislators were not absolute but contingent on the protection of their ability to function independently and express their views without undue influence.

Upholding Democratic Values:

• The Supreme Court’s decision reinforces the democratic principles embedded in the Indian Constitution.
• By safeguarding the freedom of elected legislators to speak without fear, the judiciary reaffirms the importance of preserving the representative character of Parliament and State legislatures in the country’s democratic fabric.
• The ruling acts as a robust defense against potential infringements on legislative independence and ensures that elected representatives can fulfill their duties without hindrance.

Parliamentary Privileges:

• Parliamentary privileges are the rights and immunities enjoyed by members of Parliament (MPs) in India to enable them to discharge their duties and functions without interference or intimidation.
• These privileges are derived from the Constitution of India, parliamentary conventions, laws made by the Parliament, rules of Lok sabha and Rajya sabha, and judicial interpretations.
• The privileges are claimed only when the person is a member of the house. As soon as he ends to be a member, the privileges are said to be called off.
• These privileges are essential so that the proceedings and functions can be made in a disciplined and undisturbed manner.
• In India, the privileges of members of Parliament are specified in the Constitution, the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, and the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Rajya Sabha.

Constitutional provisions related to parliamentary privileges:

• According to the Constitution of India, Articles 105 and 122 outline the privileges of Parliament, while Articles 194 and 212 pertain to the privileges of state governments.
  • Article 105: There shall be freedom of speech in Parliament. No member of Parliament shall be liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in Parliament or any committee thereof.
  • Article 122: The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be called in question in court on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.
  • Article 194: There shall be freedom of speech in the State Legislature. No member of the State Legislature shall be liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in the State Legislature or any committee thereof.
  • Article 212: The validity of any proceedings in the State Legislature shall not be called in question in court on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/allow-mps-mlas-to-speak-in-house-without-fear-of-harassment-says-supreme-court/article67913648.ece

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: India marked a significant achievement in wildlife conservation with the inauguration of the National Dolphin Research Centre (NDRC) in Patna on March 4, 2024.

EXPLANATION:

• The project, aimed at studying and conserving the endangered Gangetic River dolphin, had been in the pipeline for a decade, facing multiple delays.
• Bihar Chief Minister officially opened the center, situated strategically near the Ganga River on a 4,400 square meter plot at Patna University.

Objectives and Operations:

• The NDRC’s primary goal is to facilitate comprehensive research on Gangetic dolphins.
• The center aims to delve into various aspects of their lives, including behavior, survival skills, food habits, causes of death, and more.
• The overarching objective is to establish the NDRC as a center of excellence for dolphin research and conservation.
• Operational now, the NDRC will serve as a hub for scientists and researchers dedicated to studying these freshwater mammals.
• A notable aspect of the NDRC’s mission is to provide training to fishermen on effective dolphin conservation practices during fishing activities.
• This hands-on approach aligns with the broader goal of mitigating human-induced threats to the Gangetic river dolphin population.

Project Timeline and Delays:

• The initiative received approval in 2013, and the foundation stone was laid by CM Kumar in 2020.
• However, bureaucratic hurdles and delays in securing necessary approvals resulted in a two-year postponement.
• Despite the challenges, the NDRC is now fully functional, contributing to the collective effort of safeguarding Gangetic dolphins.

Gangetic Dolphin: A National Treasure and Endangered Species:

• The Gangetic River dolphin holds a special place in India as the country’s national aquatic animal.
• It is a Schedule I animal under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and has been classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
• Once abundant in Bihar, it now faces habitat threats, and the establishment of the NDRC becomes crucial for its survival.

Global Context and Unique Traits of Gangetic Dolphins:

• The Gangetic river dolphin is one of four freshwater dolphin species globally, with the other three found in the Yangtze river in China (now extinct), the Indus River in Pakistan, and the Amazon river in South America.
• These dolphins possess unique characteristics, such as echolocation, enabling them to navigate and locate prey in river waters.
• With approximately half of India’s estimated 3,000 Gangetic dolphins residing in Bihar, the NDRC’s focus on studying their behavior and habitat is of paramount importance.

Habitat Characteristics and Conservation Challenges:

• Gangetic dolphins prefer water that is five to eight feet deep, typically found in turbulent waters rich in fish.
• They thrive in zones with minimal or no current to conserve energy, diving into deeper waters when sensing danger.
• The NDRC’s location near the Ganga provides researchers with an ideal setting to closely observe these dolphins in their natural habitat.

National Dolphin Research Centre (NDRC):

• The National Dolphin Research Centre (NDRC) is India’s first research institute dedicated to the study and conservation of the endangered Gangetic dolphin.
• It is located near the Ganges River in Patna, Bihar, and was inaugurated on March 4, 2024.
• The NDRC is a significant development in the conservation efforts for the Gangetic dolphin, which is listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
• The centre will serve as a hub for scientists and researchers to study various aspects of dolphin behavior, ecology, and the threats they face.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/wildlife-biodiversity/india-s-first-national-dolphin-research-centre-finally-a-reality-94790

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Odisha government has proposed the introduction of female tigers to the Similipal Tiger Reserve, Asia’s second-largest biosphere and the only habitat for melanistic royal Bengal tigers in India.

EXPLANATION:

• This move aims to bolster the gene pool and address concerns about inbreeding among the unique lineage of pseudo-melanistic tigers in Similipal.
• The request to the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) reflects a strategic conservation effort to maintain the ecological balance and long-term viability of the tiger population.

Uniqueness of Similipal’s Tigers

• The Similipal Tiger Reserve sprawls across 2,750 square km in Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district.
• It is Asia’s second largest biosphere, and the country’s only wild habitat for melanistic royal Bengal tigers.
• The tigers of Similipal belong to a unique lineage with higher-than-normal levels of melanin, which gives them black-and-yellow-interspersed stripes on their coats.
• These tigers are not entirely black and are therefore more accurately described as pseudo-melanistic.
• Genetic analyses of other tiger populations in India and computer simulations suggest that the Similipal black tigers may have arisen from a very small founding population of tigers and are inbred.
• These cats live isolated from other tigers, because of which they breed among themselves.
• The Odisha Tiger Estimation conducted recently found that out of the total 24 adult tigers in Similipal, 13 are pseudo-melanistic.
• The recent Odisha Tiger Estimation revealed a total of 24 adult tigers in Similipal, with 13 being pseudo-melanistic. Of these, there are 10 males and 14 females, indicating a sex ratio imbalance.
• Isolation of Similipal’s tigers has resulted in breeding within the same population, raising concerns about genetic diversity and the overall health of the tiger community.

Rationale for Bringing Female Tigers from Central India

• The Odisha government proposes bringing in female tigers from the Central Indian landscape, encompassing states like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.
• The similarity in landscapes and climate between Similipal and Central India enhances the likelihood of successful adaptation.
• Some tiger reserves in Central India face challenges of overcrowding, leading to territorial disputes and insufficient prey.
• Relocating tigers from such areas not only addresses the overcrowding issue but also contributes to conservation efforts in Similipal.

Conservation Intervention Process

• NTCA Approval Process: The National Tiger Conservation Authority’s approval is essential for any tiger relocation in India. The Odisha government’s proposal triggers a technical committee visit to Similipal to assess factors such as landscape, climate, prey availability, and other ecological aspects before granting approval.
• Ensuring Genetic Diversity: The relocation strategy emphasizes introducing tigers from geographically proximate regions with high heterozygosity, ensuring increased genetic diversity in Similipal.

Learnings from Previous Attempts

• Satkosia Tiger Reserve Attempt: In 2018, the Odisha government attempted tiger relocation in Satkosia Tiger Reserve, which had no resident tigers. The introduction of a male and female tiger faced challenges, with the male falling victim to poachers and the female being sent back to its original habitat after alleged human fatalities.

Similipal Tiger Reserve:

• Similipal, which derives its name from ‘Simul’ (Silk Cotton) tree, is a national park and a Tiger Reserve situated in the northern part of Orissa’s Mayurbhanj district.
• The tiger reserve is spread over 2750 sq km and has some beautiful waterfalls like Joranda and Barehipani.
• The park is surrounded by high plateaus and hills, the highest peak being the twin peaks of Khairiburu and Meghashini (1515m above mean sea level).
• At least twelve rivers cut across the plain area, all of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.
• The prominent among them are Burhabalanga, Palpala Bandan, Salandi, Kahairi and Deo.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/similipals-black-tigers-female-big-cats-9194056/

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: The Shanan hydel project, located in Mandi, has become the center of a dispute between Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, both staking claims over the 110-MW hydropower project.

EXPLANATION:

• The historical context, the expiry of a 99-year lease, and competing assertions have led to legal actions and intervention by the central government, creating a complex situation.

Historical Lease Agreement

• The British-era 110-MW hydel project, situated at Jogindernagar in Mandi district, was leased to Punjab in 1925.
• The lease agreement was signed between the then ruler of Mandi, Raja Joginder Bahadur, and Col BC Batty, a British representative and Chief Engineer of Punjab.
• The 99-year-old lease came to an end on March 2.
• In the past few years, Himachal has contended that the project should stay with it once the lease ends.
• State Chief Minister had stated they would not allow Punjab to stake claim on the project after the lease period.
• He had written to his Punjab counterpart Bhagwant Mann last year and also taken up the issue with the Union ministry of power.

Competing Claims and Legal Context

• Post-Partition Scenario: After partition, the supply of power from the Shanan project to Lahore was discontinued, and the transmission line was halted at Verka village in Amritsar.
• Reorganization of States (1966): During the reorganization of states in 1966, the hydel project was allocated to Punjab, as Himachal Pradesh was then a Union Territory. A central notification in 1967 affirmed Punjab’s legal control under the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.
• Himachal’s Contentions: Himachal Pradesh, in recent years, contends that the Shanan project should revert to its control after the expiry of the lease. Chief Minister Sukhvinder Sukhu has expressed the state’s firm stance against Punjab claiming the project post-lease.

Allegations and Counter-Claims

• Poor Condition Allegations: Himachal Pradesh alleges that the Shanan project is in poor condition due to Punjab’s purported lack of repair and maintenance efforts. This claim adds an environmental and infrastructure dimension to the dispute.
• Punjab’s SC Plea: Punjab, in response, has moved the Supreme Court, asserting ownership and lawful possession of the Shanan Power House Project. The state argues that the assets are under the control of the Punjab State Power Corporation Ltd (PSPCL).
• SC Plea Details: Punjab’s plea seeks a “permanent Prohibitory Injunction” against Himachal Pradesh, restraining interference with the lawful possession and functioning of the project. The Centre is also made a party in the legal proceedings.

Central Government’s Intervention

• In response to the escalating dispute, the central government, a day before the lease expiration, issued an order directing both Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to maintain status quo regarding the functioning of the Shanan Power House.
• This order, an interim measure, is aimed at ensuring the uninterrupted operation of the 110 MW project until a final decision is reached.
• The order invokes Sections 67 and 96 of the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, along with Section 21 of the General Clause Act, 1887, emphasizing that the maintenance of status quo is in the public interest.

Shanan hydropower project:

• The Shanan hydropower project in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh is one of the oldest and most important hydroelectric projects in India. It was built by the British in 1925.
• The project harnesses the power of the Uhl River, a tributary of the Beas River, and generates 110 MW of electricity.
• The project consists of a dam, a powerhouse, a reservoir and a network of canals and tunnels. The project is also a source of irrigation and drinking water for the surrounding areas.
• The project was leased to the Punjab Government for 99 years by Raja Joginder Singh Bahadur, the then-ruler of Mandi state.
• The lease agreement will expire in March 2024, and both Himachal Pradesh and Punjab are claiming their rights over the project.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/punjab-himachal-dispute-over-the-shanan-hydropower-project-9195344/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Forest Department officials have conducted a comprehensive scientific survey over the past three months to estimate the population of the Indian Bison, also known as gaur, in the Papikonda National Park and nearby forests.

EXPLANATION:

• The survey employed a combination of camera traps and on-ground foot patrolling for accurate population estimation.
• Forest Range Officers, Range Officers, and other personnel conducted foot patrols in specific sectors to ensure a thorough count of the Indian Bison.
• The use of camera traps added a technological dimension to the survey, capturing visuals of the bison population in their natural habitat.
• According to the survey results, the estimated population of Indian Bison in the surveyed areas is 375.
• This count includes both adults and calves.
• The distribution of the population across specific regions is as follows:
  • Polavaram (119 Bison): The highest count was recorded in Polavaram, indicating a significant presence of Indian Bison in this region.
  • Chintur (101 Bison): Chintur follows closely with a substantial population of Indian Bison, contributing to the overall biodiversity of the area.
  • Paderu (84 Bison): The survey identified 84 Indian Bison in the Paderu region, signifying a notable concentration in this particular forest area.
  • Chintapalli (37 Bison): Chintapalli showed a relatively lower count, but still plays a role in sustaining the Indian Bison population in the broader ecosystem.

Geographical Coverage

• The survey covered a diverse range of forests, including those in Kukunur, Maredumilli, Rajavommangi, Kunavaram, Lakkavaram, Nillipaka, Jeebadu, Marripakala, Pedavalasa, Chintur, and V.R. Puram areas.
• This extensive coverage ensures a representative sample of the Indian Bison population across various ecosystems, contributing to a more accurate estimation.

Wildlife Conservation Significance

• The study holds significance for wildlife conservation efforts, providing crucial data on the Indian Bison population.
• The Papikonda National Park, along with the surrounding forests, emerges as a stronghold for the Indian Bison, emphasizing the importance of preserving these habitats.
• The presence of calves indicates a stable and sustainable population, essential for the long-term health of the species.

Ecological Impact and Challenges

• The Indian Bison, being a wild member of the buffalo family, plays a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance of the Eastern and Western Ghats.
• However, the report highlights that these animals, especially the males, can pose a danger to humans and may exhibit aggressive behavior.
• The need for implementing effective conservation strategies that consider both the protection of wildlife and the safety of human populations residing near these habitats has been stressed.

Papikonda National Park:

• It is located in Andhra Pradesh.
• The area is mostly is inaccessible with hilly terrain with high slopes & valleys.
• The area plays a key role in high precipitation and the consequent origin of various small streams and rivulets which drain and enrich the perennial River Godavari.
• The park exists in the Eastern Ghats which is known for rich floristic diversity with more than 2531 species under 700 genera and 125 families constituting about 13% of the flowering plants of India.
• The moist deciduous forests have maximum number of endemic species (173 taxa), followed by dry deciduous (121 taxa).
• A unique dwarf breed of goat known locally as the “kanchu mekha” originates in this region.
• The national park has been recognized as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area by BirdLife International.
  • An Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) is an area identified using an internationally agreed set of criteria as being globally important for the conservation of bird populations.
  • IBA was developed and sites are identified by BirdLife International. There are over 13,000 IBAs worldwide.
  • These sites are small enough to be entirely conserved and differ in their character, habitat or ornithological importance from the surrounding habitat.

Bison:

• The gaur also known as the Indian bison, is a bovine native to South Asia and Southeast Asia and has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1986.
• The global population was estimated at a maximum of 21,000 mature individuals in 2016, with the majority of those existing in India.
• It is the largest species among the wild cattle and the Bovidae.
• The domesticated form of the gaur is called gayal (Bos frontalis) or Mithun.
• They prefer evergreen forests and moist deciduous forests. However, they can survive in dry deciduous forests also.
• They are not found in the Himalayas with an altitude greater than 6,000 ft. They generally stick to the foothills only.
• The Indian Bison is a grazing animal and generally feeds in the early morning and in the late evenings.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/375-indian-bison-inhabiting-papikonda-national-park-nearby-forests/article67910635.ece/amp/#amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&aoh=17096116909919&csi=0&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: Union Home Minister and Minister of Cooperation inaugurated the National Urban Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation Limited (NUCFDC) recently.

EXPLANATION:

• This marks a significant step towards the establishment of an umbrella organization for urban cooperative banks.

National Urban Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation Limited (NUCFDC):

• The National Urban Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation Limited (NUCFDC) is an umbrella organization established to support and promote Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs) in India.
• It was inaugurated by the Union Home Minister and Minister of Cooperation, Shri Amit Shah, on March 2, 2024.

Objectives of NUCFDC:

• To provide specialized functions and services to UCBs, including financial assistance, capacity building, and technological upgradation.
• To facilitate communication and coordination between UCBs and regulators, such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
• To address the challenges faced by UCBs, such as financial instability, governance issues, and lack of professionalism.
• To promote the modernization and strengthening of the Urban Cooperative Banking Sector in India.

Benefits of NUCFDC

• The establishment of NUCFDC is expected to benefit both UCBs and their customers in several ways:
  • Enhanced financial stability: NUCFDC can provide financial assistance to UCBs in distress, thereby helping to improve their financial health and stability.
  • Improved governance: NUCFDC can promote good governance practices among UCBs by providing training and capacity building programs for directors and employees.
  • Increased efficiency: NUCFDC can help UCBs to adopt new technologies and improve their operational efficiency.

Urban Cooperative Banks:

• Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs) are registered as cooperative societies under the provisions of, either the State Cooperative Societies Act of the State concerned or the Multi State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002.
• They are regulated and supervised by the Registrar of Cooperative Societies (RCS) of State concerned or by the Central Registrar of Cooperative Societies (CRCS), as the case may be.
• They primarily operate in urban and semi-urban regions of India.
• These entities cater to banking requirements of small businesses, individuals, and communities.
• Services include deposit accounts, loans, remittances, and other financial products and services.
• At present, there are over 1,500 scheduled and non-scheduled Urban Cooperative Banks in India.

Strength and Impact of Cooperative Banks:

• Cooperative banks collectively boast a significant strength, with 11,000 branches spread across 1,500 banks and deposits amounting to Rs 5 lakh crore.
• Urban cooperative banks have achieved a commendable reduction in their Net Non-Performing Assets (NPA), currently standing at 2.10%.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/india/amit-shah-launches-umbrella-body-for-urban-co-op-banks-9192673/lite/

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: The Government of India has notified the historic Press & Registration of Periodicals Act (PRP Act), 2023 and its Rules in its Gazette and consequently the Act has come into force from 1st March, 2024.

EXPLANATION:

• From now on, the registration of periodicals shall be governed by the provisions of the Press and Registration of Periodicals Act (PRP Act), 2023 and the Press and Registration of Periodicals Rules.
• As per the notification, the office of Press Registrar General of India – PRGI (erstwhile Registrar of Newspapers for India – RNI) shall be carrying out the purposes of the new Act.

Press & Registration of Periodicals Act (PRP Act), 2023:

• The new Act removes the procedural obstacles involving multiple approvals at various stages for starting a newspaper/printed publication in India.

Appellate authority:

• The new Bill also provides for an appellate authority.
• The Appellate Board (Press and Registration Appellate Board) will comprise the Chairperson, Press Council of India (PCI), and two members of PCI to hear an appeal against refusal of grant of registration, imposition of any penalty or suspension/cancellation of registration by PRG.
• Such appeals may be filed before the Press and Registration Appellate Board within 60 days.

Press Council of India (PCI):

• The PCI was first set up in 1966 by the parliament on the recommendations of the First Press Commission under the chairmanship of Justice J.R Mudholkar.
• The present council functions under the Press Council Act 1978.
  • It is an act to establish a Press Council for the purpose of preserving the freedom of the Press and of maintaining and improving the standards of newspapers and news agencies in India.
• It is a statutory, quasi-judicial body that acts as a watchdog of the press in India.

SOURCE: https://newsonair.gov.in/Main-News-Details.aspx?id=478321#:~:text=The%20Government%20has%20notified%20the,other%20periodicals%20in%20the%20country

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The elusive and critically endangered hangul, a native species of deer in Kashmir, has displayed a robust rutting or mating season, offering hope for its population resurgence.

EXPLANATION:

• Experts are optimistic about the hangul population surpassing 300 this spring, marking a significant achievement after over three decades of decline.
• To facilitate undisturbed rutting, Dachigam National Park, the habitat of hangul, was temporarily closed to visitors between September 25 and October 18 previous year, highlighting the conservation efforts to protect the critical mating period.

Historical Decline and Recent Resurgence:

• Population Decline Since 1947: Since 1947, the hangul population faced a sharp decline, dwindling from around 2000 to 384 by 1968.
• The population plummeted further in the 1990s due to political turmoil, with an estimated 140 to 160 hanguls in 1992.
• Despite challenges, recent years have seen a steady increase, with the population rising from 183 in 2015 to 261 in 2021.

Conservation Efforts and Environmental Challenges:

• Habitat Preservation: Efforts by the Wildlife department include securing corridors, especially the Wangath-Naranag corridor, and regulating traffic on highways to ensure the safe movement of hangul groups.
• Male-Female Ratio Imbalance: Challenges include a skewed male-female ratio, with 19.2 males per 100 females, falling significantly below the ideal ratio of 40-50 males per 100 females.
• Predator Threats: Hangul faces threats from leopards and Asiatic Black Bears, with research suggesting they constitute about 25% of the leopard diet in Dachigam.
• Climate Impact: Global warming and reduced snow cover in Upper Dachigam have led to dried-up drainages and potential habitat disturbances.
• Water Scarcity Concerns: Dried-up drainages may force hanguls, especially lactating females, to move towards disturbed habitats, increasing vulnerability to predators or sheep dogs.

Conservation Initiatives and Future Plans:

• Protection Mechanism: The J&K Wildlife department has identified 10 hangul sites for enhanced protection and sustenance.
• Captive Breeding: A captive breeding facility has been established at Shikargah Tral, with plans to use assisted reproductive techniques (ART) to augment the hangul population.
• Genome Resource Banking: Radio-collaring initiatives in 2013 and 2020 have paved the way for genome resource banking and the establishment of an embryo bank, crucial for conservation efforts.

Hangul:

• The hangul also called as Kashmir stag is a subspecies of Central Asian red deer endemic to Kashmir and surrounding areas.
• It is found in dense riverine forests in the high valleys and mountains of Jammu and Kashmir and northern Himachal Pradesh.
• In Kashmir, it is found primarily in the Dachigam National Park where it receives protection.
• A small population has also been witnessed in Overa-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary in south Kashmir.
• It has been is classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List, as its population has declined drastically over the years due to habitat loss, overgrazing by domestic livestock, poaching, predation, diseases and human-wildlife conflicts.

Dachigam National Park:

• The actual beauty of the park lies in the deep valleys, rocky outcrops, steep wooded slopes and rolling alpine pastures.
• Being located in a mountainous area, Dachigam National Park faces a huge variation in altitude that ranges from 1600 m to 4200 m above sea level.
• This variation in altitude categorises Dachigam National Park into two regions- the upper region and the lower region.
• It is extremely rich in Wild Cherry, Pear, Plum, Peach, Apple, Apricot, Walnut, Chestnut, Oak, Willow, Poplar, Chinar, Birch, Pine and Elm.
• Fauna: Hangul (Kashmir Stag), Musk deer, Brown Bear, Leopards, Jungle Cats, Himalayan black bear, and a few species of wild goats like the markhor and ibex.

Genome Resource Banking:

• Genome resource banking is the systematic collection, storage, and redistribution of biomaterials in an organized, logistical, and secure manner.
• Genome cryobanks usually contain biomaterials and associated genomic information essential for progression of biomedicine, human health, and research.
• Many developed and developing countries have allocated substantial resources to establish genome resources banks which are responsible for safeguarding scientifically, economically, and ecologically important wild type, mutant, and transgenic plants, fish, and local livestock breeds, as well as wildlife species.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/mating-calls-of-endangered-hangul-in-kashmir-indicate-record-uptick-in-population/article67908211.ece  

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: Tripura’s indigenous handwoven cloth, Risa, has recently been granted the prestigious Geographical Indication (GI) tag, marking a significant milestone for the state’s rich cultural heritage.

EXPLANATION:

• Chief Minister of Tripura proudly announced this achievement, acknowledging the artisans, particularly those from the Killa Mahila cluster in Gomati district, for their commendable contribution.

Historical and Cultural Significance:

• Risa, a handwoven cloth, has been an integral part of the indigenous communities in Tripura for generations.
• It holds cultural significance and is commonly worn during festivals and social gatherings.
• The cloth serves multiple purposes, functioning as a headgear, stole, or upper garment, showcasing its versatility and adaptability to various occasions.

• The GI tag is expected to open doors for international recognition, showcasing Tripura’s unique handwoven textile tradition on a global platform.

Artisan Collaboration and Heritage Preservation:

• The Tripura Rural Livelihood Mission (TRLM) played a crucial role in promoting and supporting artisans, particularly in the Killa Mahila Cluster, contributing to the success of Tripura Risa.
• Risa, with its heritage value, has attracted support from various agencies and self-help groups (SHGs), contributing to the preservation and promotion of this traditional craft.
• The collaboration with NABARD to secure the GI tag highlights the strategic efforts made by governmental and non-governmental entities to protect and enhance the heritage value of Risa.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION PLEASE REFER TO 1^ST ARTICLE ON GI TAGs.

SOURCE: https://www.deccanherald.com/india/tripura/tripuras-handwoven-cloth-risa-gets-gi-tag-cm-manik-saha-announces-2920193

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: Recently, a number of products has been awarded Geographical Indication tags.

EXPLANATION:

Cuttack Rupa Tarakasi (Silver Filigree) – A Symbol of Craftsmanship and Tradition

• The renowned Cuttack Rupa Tarakasi, known for its exquisite Silver Filigree work, has been granted the prestigious Geographical Indication (GI) tag by the Geographical Indications Registry in Chennai.
• It was filed by the Odisha State Co-operative Handicrafts Corporation Limited and supported by the Department of Textile and Handicrafts, Government of Odisha.
• This acknowledgment recognizes the traditional association of filigree with fine craftsmanship and opulent design in classical jewelry.
• Archaeological evidence suggests the incorporation of filigree into jewelry as early as 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia, persisting today as Telkari work.
• The filing alludes to the possibility of Tarakasi work reaching Cuttack from Persia through Indonesia around 500 years ago, facilitated by sea trade.
• Literary references, such as the story of Ta-Poi, indicate historical maritime activities involving the exchange of jewelry and gems between Kalinga and Indonesia, hinting at Indonesia as a potential origin of Silver Filigree in Odisha.

Banglar Muslin – Bengal’s Traditional Handloom Craft

• Banglar muslin, a traditional handloom craft of Bengal, has secured a Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
• This fine muslin is crafted from cotton threads, spun to maintain tensile strength at counts ranging from 300 to 600, surpassing other cotton products.

Narasapur Crochet Lace Products – Global Acclaim for Intricate Craftsmanship

• Narasapur in West Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, has gained international acclaim for its intricate crochet lace craftsmanship.
• Missionaries introduced crochet skills to Narsapur, making it a prominent center for handmade crocheted lace work.

Kutch Rogan Craft – A Distinctive GI Craft

• Kutch Rogan Craft is among the products awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
• Kutch Rogan Craft, also known as Rogan painting, is a unique and beautiful art form practiced in the Kutch region of Gujarat, India.
• It involves the creation of intricate designs and patterns on fabrics using a special resist painting technique.

Other Distinguished GI-Tagged Products:

Ratlam Riyawan Lahsun (Garlic) – Madhya Pradesh’s Culinary Gem

• Origin: Ratlam Riyawan Lahsun is named after Riyawan village in the Ratlam district of Madhya Pradesh, India.
• Culinary Gem: This variety of garlic is renowned for its unique taste, aroma, and medicinal properties, making it a culinary gem in Madhya Pradesh.

Ambaji White Marble – Formed Under Intense Pressure and Heat

• Origin: Ambaji White Marble comes from the Ambaji region, known for its marble quarries, situated in the state of Gujarat, India.
• It is formed through the re-crystallization of limestone under the earth’s crust due to intense pressure and heat.
• Ambaji White Marble is highly valued for its purity, luster, and suitability for various artistic and architectural applications.

Hyderabad Lac Bangles – Craftsmanship from the City of Pearls

• Hyderabad Lac Bangles are traditional bangles crafted in Hyderabad, Telangana, known as the “City of Pearls.”
• Craftsmanship: These bangles are crafted using lac, a natural resin, and are known for their intricate designs and vibrant colors, reflecting the rich cultural heritage of the region.

Majuli Mask of Assam – Varied Categories Reflecting Cultural Significance

• Majuli Masks are crafted in the Majuli district of Assam, the largest river island in the Brahmaputra River.
• Cultural Significance: These masks, categorized as ‘Mukha bhaona,’ ‘Lotokoi,’ and ‘Cho Mukha,’ play diverse roles in Assamese culture, representing various themes and characters.

Assam Majuli Manuscript Painting – Depicting Hindu Epics and Bhagavata Purana

• Assam Majuli Manuscript Paintings hail from the Majuli district in Assam, India.
• Depiction of Epics: These paintings illustrate stories and chapters taken from Hindu epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana, showcasing the artistic heritage of Assam.

Geographical Indication (GI) tag:

• It came into force with effect from 15th September 2003.
• The Geographical Indication (GI) tag is given to products so that only authorized people can use the popular product’s name.
• It is given to products having a specific geographical origin and qualities or reputation associated with that origin.
• It was given to products related to agriculture, handicrafts, foodstuffs, spirit drinks, and industrial products.
• The first product to receive this tag is Darjeeling Tea.
• The rules and regulations of the GI tag are governed by the WTO’s agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights.
• In India, GI products are governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999.
• This tag is valid for 10 years and can be renewed.

GI Registration:

• In December 1999, Parliament passed the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act 1999.
• This Act seeks to provide for the registration and protection of Geographical Indications relating to goods in India.
• This Act is administered by the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks, who is the Registrar of Geographical Indications. The Geographical Indications Registry is located at Chennai.
• The Registrar of Geographical Indication is divided into two parts. Part ’A’ consists of particulars relating to registered Geographical indications and Part ‘B’ consists of particulars of the registered authorized users.
• The registration process is similar to both for registration of geographical indication and an authorized user which is illustrated below:

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/cuttack-rupa-tarakasi-banglar-muslin-get-gi-tag/article67910811.ece

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Sixth United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA-6) is reaching its conclusion after a week-long deliberation on March 1, 2024.

EXPLANATION:

• During this crucial assembly, at least 12 resolutions are set to be adopted, with a focus on addressing the pressing global issues of climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution.

Resolutions and Their Origin

• Draft Resolutions:
  • The Committee of Whole (CoW), a pivotal component of the UNEA structure, has already endorsed 12 draft resolutions, with nine being new.
  • These resolutions aim to urge member states to take concrete actions against the triple threats of climate change, loss of biodiversity, and pollution.
• Withdrawn Resolutions:
  • Out of the 24 initially tabled drafts, five have been withdrawn by their proponents.
  • The remaining are undergoing further deliberations.
• Funding Mechanisms:
  • Three resolutions are dedicated to the administration of funds and funding mechanisms, including those related to the Global Environmental Facility and the organization of UNEA-7 in 2025.

International Deliberations

• Open-Ended Informal Meetings:
  • Various countries, including Ukraine, Costa Rica, Saudi Arabia, the Netherlands, Ethiopia, and the European Union, hosted “open-ended informal meetings” on the penultimate day.
  • These discussions centered around different resolutions, fostering international cooperation.
• Clusters of Emphasis:
  • The draft resolutions are divided into four clusters, emphasizing the need for “environmental multilateralism” – collaborative actions and approaches to combat the climate crisis by diverse actors.

Key Resolutions Set for Adoption

• Chemicals and Waste Management:
  • A resolution on sound management of chemicals and waste is among those set for adoption.
• Air Quality Improvement:
  • Another resolution focuses on promoting regional cooperation on air pollution to enhance air quality globally.
• Combatting Sand and Dust Storms:
  • UNEA-6 is also set to consider a new resolution on combating sand and dust storms, recognizing their environmental impact.
• National Action for Environmental Challenges:
  • A draft resolution calls for fostering national action through increased cooperation between different actors to address environmental challenges.

Additional Endorsements by CoW

• Role of Regional Forums:
  • The CoW has endorsed a draft emphasizing the role and viability of regional environment ministerial forums and regional offices in achieving multilateral cooperation.
• Synergies and Cooperation:
  • Another endorsed draft focuses on promoting synergies, cooperation, or collaboration for national implementation of multilateral environmental agreements and other relevant instruments.

Pending Resolution on Environmental Assistance

• Ukraine’s Proposal: Ukraine has sponsored a resolution calling for environmental assistance and recovery in areas affected by armed conflicts. This resolution is yet to reach the CoW for adoption.

Legal Status of Resolutions

• While the resolutions play a critical role in guiding the actions of the 180+ member countries, it’s essential to note that they are not legally binding.
• Instead, they serve as guides for member states in implementing activities and plans impacting the environment and the planet’s wellbeing.

Finalization and Exact Wording

• The final wording of the resolutions is expected to be determined during their tabling on March 1, marking the official conclusion of UNEA-6.

United Nations Environmental Assembly:

• It is the governing body of the UN Environment Programme.
• It is the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment.
• The Assembly is made up of the 193 UN Member States and convenes every two years to advance global environmental governance.
• It was created in June 2012, during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, also referred to as RIO+20.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/unea-6-to-consider-12-draft-resolutions-on-its-final-day-94755

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: The recently released data by the National Statistical Office (NSO) on India’s economic performance in the third quarter of 2023-24 has sparked discussions due to a notable divergence between Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross Value Added (GVA) growth rates.

EXPLANATION:

• This divergence, reaching a 10-year high, has raised questions and concerns among economists and policymakers.

Background of the Divergence

• The 190 Basis Points Gap:
  • In Q3, the gap between GDP and GVA growth rates widened to 190 basis points, the highest in a decade.
  • This divergence is primarily attributed to a significant increase in net taxes and a simultaneous decrease in subsidies.

Surprising GDP Growth in Q3

• GDP Exceeds Expectations:
  • India’s GDP growth in Q3 reached a six-quarter high of 8.4%, surpassing estimates by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and economists.
  • The unexpected surge in GDP influenced the upward revision of the full-year GDP estimate to 7.6%.
• Sectoral Growth Highlights:
  • Several sectors, including manufacturing, mining, construction, trade, hotels, transport, and communication, witnessed robust growth.
  • Agriculture, however, experienced a contraction in Q3.

Reasons Behind the Divergence

• GVA Growth Lags Behind GDP:
  • GVA growth in Q3 was 190 basis points lower than GDP growth, raising suspicions of potential overestimation of GDP.
  • GVA measures national income from the output side, excluding taxes and subsidies, while GDP adds these components.
• Impact of Lower GDP Deflator:
  • A lower-than-usual annual GDP deflator (1.4% in FY24) has contributed to potentially overstating real growth.
  • The deflator, based on the wholesale price index (WPI), influences the comparison of real economic activity across years.

Factors Contributing to Q3 GDP Surge

• Sectoral Contributions:
  • Except for agriculture, all major sectors showed substantial growth in Q3, contributing to the overall GDP surge.
  • Manufacturing, mining, and construction witnessed notable expansions.
• Expenditure Side Support:
  • Investments, particularly in real estate, played a crucial role in supporting GDP growth during Q3.
  • Gross fixed capital formation, indicating investment levels, recorded a growth of 10.6%.

Revisions and Historical Context

• Revised Growth Rates:
  • Previous financial years’ growth rates underwent revisions, benefiting from a favorable base effect.
  • GDP growth estimates for the current fiscal year were revised upwards, showcasing improved economic performance.
• Historical Divergence:
  • The divergence between GVA and GDP growth rates is not only limited to Q3 but extends to the full financial year.
  • GVA is expected to grow at sub-7%, while GDP is projected at 7.6% in FY24.

Expectations and Concerns Going Forward

• Focus on Consumption and Investments:
  • Analysts emphasize the need for a broad-based improvement in consumption growth and private investments.
  • GDP growth, primarily supported by investments, faces challenges with subdued private consumption growth.
• GDP Deflator Impact on FY25:
  • The GDP deflator’s anticipated growth in FY25 may influence real GDP growth, potentially slowing down economic expansion.
  • Profit growth, input cost dynamics, and government capital expenditure are critical factors to monitor in the coming quarters.

GDP:

• The GDP measures the monetary measure of all “final” goods and services— those that are bought by the final user— produced in a country in a given period.
• GDP = private consumption + gross investment + government investment + government spending + (exports-imports)

GVA:

• The GVA calculates the same national income from the supply side.
• It does so by adding up all the value added across different sectors.
• According to the RBI, the GVA of a sector is defined as the value of output minus the value of its intermediary inputs. This “value added” is shared among the primary factors of production, labour and capital.
• GDP = (GVA) + (Taxes earned by the government) — (Subsidies provided by the government)

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-economics/why-have-gdp-and-gva-growth-rates-diverged-in-q3-9191086/

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: The ongoing legal tussle between Punjab and Himachal Pradesh over the Shanan Hydropower Project has escalated, with the Punjab government urgently approaching the Supreme Court to intervene in the matter.

EXPLANATION:

• The dispute centers around the impending expiration of a 99-year lease for the Shanan Hydropower Project located in Himachal Pradesh.
• The Punjab government has filed a suit under Article 131 of the Constitution, seeking the Supreme Court’s intervention to prevent the Himachal Pradesh government from taking control of the Shanan Hydropower Project upon the expiry of the lease.
• The 99-year lease for the Shanan Hydropower Project is set to expire this month, prompting the urgency in legal proceedings to avoid the Himachal Pradesh government taking over the project.

Historical Background of Shanan Hydropower Project

• The Shanan Hydropower Project, situated in Jogindernagar, Himachal Pradesh, dates back to 1925.
• It was constructed during the British era under a lease agreement between Raja Joginder Sen and Col BC Batty.
• The hydropower project played a crucial role in supplying electricity to undivided Punjab, Lahore, and Delhi before India gained Independence.
• The Punjab government claims that the Shanan Hydropower Project is in a state of disrepair, alleging that maintenance work was halted by the Punjab government.
• Punjab asserts ownership and lawful possession of the project, currently under the formative control of the Punjab State Power Corporation Ltd (PSPCL).
• The legal action is taken under Article 131, which deals with the Supreme Court’s original jurisdiction in disputes between states or between the Centre and states.

Legal Demands and Injunctions Sought by Punjab

• Permanent Prohibitory Injunction: Punjab seeks a permanent injunction, preventing the Himachal Pradesh government from disturbing the lawful possession and smooth functioning of the Shanan Hydropower Project.
• Mandatory Injunction: Additionally, Punjab urges the Supreme Court to issue a mandatory injunction, directing Himachal Pradesh not to deploy any officer or team to take over the project’s management and control.

Chief Minister’s Advocacy and Historical Injustice Claim

• Chief Minister of HP raised the issue during his recent visit to Delhi, demanding the immediate transfer of the project to Himachal Pradesh.
• He also asserted that the project’s allocation to Punjab in 1966, during the reorganization of states, was unjust, given Himachal Pradesh’s status as a Union Territory at the time.

Shanan hydropower project:

• The Shanan hydropower project in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh is one of the oldest and most important hydroelectric projects in India. It was built by the British in 1925.
• The project harnesses the power of the Uhl River, a tributary of the Beas River, and generates 110 MW of electricity.
• The project consists of a dam, a powerhouse, a reservoir and a network of canals and tunnels. The project is also a source of irrigation and drinking water for the surrounding areas.
• The project was leased to the Punjab Government for 99 years by Raja Joginder Singh Bahadur, the then-ruler of Mandi state.
• The lease agreement will expire in March 2024, and both Himachal Pradesh and Punjab are claiming their rights over the project.

Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court:

• The Supreme Court has original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction.
• Its exclusive original jurisdiction extends to any dispute
  • between the Government of India and one or more States or
  • between the Government of India and any State or States on one side and one or more States on the other or
  • between two or more States,
• if and insofar as the dispute involves any question (whether of law or of fact) on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends.

SOURCE: https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/punjab-moves-supreme-court-against-himachal-pradeshs-attempt-to-take-control-of-shanan-hydropower-project-596130

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: The Genome India Project, spearheaded by the Department of Biotechnology, has successfully completed the monumental task of sequencing 10,000 Indian genomes.

EXPLANATION:

• This ambitious initiative aims to unravel the intricate genetic makeup of a diverse population, offering insights into health, disease, and the unique genetic landscape of the Indian subcontinent.

Creating a Reference Indian Genome

• Significance of Genome Sequencing: The project’s completion implies the comprehensive analysis of DNA blueprints from 10,000 individuals, establishing a ‘reference’ Indian human genome. This can be likened to creating a detailed map of India, with specificity comparable to political units, geography, and topography.
• Representativity Challenges: Acknowledging that 10,000 individuals may not fully represent a nation of over a billion, the dataset serves as an essential template, providing a foundation for further exploration and insights.

Applications in Disease Combatting

• Historical Context: Highlighting India’s earlier foray into genetic research, the article references the discovery in 2009 that identified a genetic variant linked to a high risk of heart failure. The prevalence of such variants is underscored by India’s intricate population structure and caste-based endogamy.
• Complex Genetic Landscape: The article emphasizes the persistence of rare, harmful genetic variants due to historical factors, emphasizing that the genome sequencing efforts can shed light on diseases influenced by multiple factors.

Challenges and the Path Forward for Genome India

• Population Diversity and Complexity: Acknowledging India’s close to 4,500 population groups and the historical impact of endogamy, the article underscores the complexity of India’s genetic landscape.
• Democratizing Genetic Insights: Proposing a democratic approach, the article calls for the findings not to be confined to academia. Instead, it advocates for collaborations with scientists, students, technology companies, ethicists, and social scientists to democratize and advance India’s understanding of its genetic diversity.

Genome India Project:

• It is a scientific initiative inspired by the Human Genome Project (HGP), an international effort that successfully decoded the entire human genome between 1990 and 2003.
• The project was started in 2020, aiming to better understand the genetic variations and disease-causing mutations specific to the Indian population, which is one of the most genetically diverse in the world.
• By sequencing and analyzing these genomes, researchers hope to gain insights into the underlying genetic causes of diseases and develop more effective personalized therapies.
• The project involves the collaboration of 20 institutions across India and is being led by the Centre for Brain Research at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore.
• The project involved around 20 institutions across India, with the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, and the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, serving as lead institutions.
• The primary goal was to establish a representative genomic database that reflects the genetic diversity of India’s 1.3 billion population, which comprises over 4,600 distinct population groups, many of which are endogamous.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/decoding-the-script-on-the-genome-india-project-and-its-sequencing-10000-indian-genomes/article67899979.ece

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Union Environment Ministry of India has proposed the establishment of an International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), aiming to address the conservation challenges faced by ‘big cats’ globally.

EXPLANATION:

• Drawing inspiration from the successful International Solar Alliance, the IBCA is set to play a pivotal role in disseminating conservation practices and creating a collaborative platform.

Global Significance

• India’s Leadership in Tiger Conservation: India’s prowess in tiger conservation has been globally recognized, positioning the country as a leader in big cat conservation efforts.
• Scope of Big Cats: The IBCA encompasses iconic species like tigers, lions, leopards, snow leopards, pumas, jaguars, and cheetahs. Except for pumas and jaguars, all these species are found in India.

IBCA Structure and Funding

• Headquarters and Funding: The IBCA will be headquartered in India, with an initial commitment of ₹150 crore for five years. This financial support underscores India’s dedication to the cause.
• Corpus Fund: A corpus fund will be established, ensuring a sustainable source of financial support for conservation initiatives. This is a crucial aspect to address the resource gap in many big cat countries.

Membership and Global Participation

• Current Members: As of now, 16 countries have formally joined the IBCA. With 96 countries worldwide hosting big cats, the alliance is open to additional participants, including conservation organizations, scientific bodies, businesses, and corporates interested in supporting big cats.
• Collaborative Approach: The IBCA aims to facilitate collaboration and knowledge exchange on an international scale, leveraging India’s experience in evolving effective conservation practices.

Conservation Strategies and Training

• Technical Know-How Repository: One of the benefits for member countries is access to a central repository for technical know-how. This repository will serve as a valuable resource for implementing successful conservation strategies.
• Strengthening Initiatives: The IBCA will strengthen existing species-specific intergovernmental platforms, networks, and transnational initiatives on conservation and protection.
• Training Programs: Frontline staff in member countries will receive training in garnering local support for big cat conservation. This includes research and development in wildlife monitoring, emphasizing a holistic approach.

Community Engagement and Eco-Tourism

• Empowering Local Communities: The alliance recognizes the importance of involving local communities living near forests. Training programs will encourage and empower them to participate in eco-tourism initiatives and sustainable livelihood opportunities.

Ongoing Initiatives and Future Prospects

• India-Cambodia Collaboration: An example cited is the memorandum between India and Cambodia to revive Cambodia’s extinct tiger population. This initiative showcases the practical implementation of the alliance’s goals.
• Potential Tiger Transfer: While discussions about transferring tigers from India to Cambodia have taken place, concrete plans are yet to be finalized, according to Minister Bhupendra Yadav.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/india-to-set-up-international-big-cat-alliance/article67903303.ece

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: In a pivotal decision, the Supreme Court, on February 29, reversed its 2018 judgment in the Asian Resurfacing case, which mandated the automatic expiration of interim stay orders issued by High Courts after six months.

EXPLANATION:

• The latest ruling reinstates the discretionary power of High Courts to extend stay orders beyond the specified period.
• The five-judge bench, led by Chief Justice, delivered this significant verdict.
• The 2018 Asian Resurfacing ruling set a precedent for the automatic vacation of stay orders after six months, affecting both civil and criminal trials.
• However, the recent Supreme Court decision challenges this directive, emphasizing the need for a nuanced approach to individual cases.

Key Decision Points:

• Overturning Asian Resurfacing Judgment:
  • The Supreme Court explicitly overturned the Asian Resurfacing judgment, declaring that the automatic vacation of stay orders cannot be imposed under Article 142 of the Constitution.
• Judicial Legislation Concerns:
  • The court expressed reservations about directions that automatically vacate stay orders, asserting that such directives amount to judicial legislation.
  • The judiciary cannot interfere with the High Court’s power to grant interim relief and must avoid imposing constraints on its jurisdiction under Article 226 of the Constitution.
• Constitutional Courts’ Discretion:
  • The five-judge bench emphasized that constitutional courts should refrain from imposing time-bound schedules on other courts.
  • Recognizing the varying patterns of case pendency, the decision asserts that judges, aware of local conditions, should decide the priority of cases, allowing for flexibility.

Arguments and Observations During Reference Hearing:

• During the reference hearing against the Asian Resurfacing judgment, critical issues were highlighted.
• Chief Justice underscored the adverse impact on litigants, emphasizing the need for a thoughtful application of judicial discretion in vacating stay orders.
• Arguments by Senior Advocate and Solicitor General focused on preserving the discretion of High Courts and avoiding a one-size-fits-all approach.

Broader Implications and Criticisms:

• The 2018 ruling faced criticism for its potential erosion of judicial discretion.
• Senior Advocates argued against arbitrary outcomes, urging a balance between speedy trials and fundamental principles of justice.
• The Supreme Court’s scrutiny of Asian Resurfacing reflects concerns over potential miscarriages of justice arising from automatic stay vacation rules.

Revisiting the March 2018 Asian Resurfacing Judgment:

• The Supreme Court’s decision to revisit the Asian Resurfacing judgment was prompted by reservations expressed by a bench led by Justice BR Gavai and subsequent concerns raised by the Allahabad High Court.
• The acknowledgment that an automatic vacation of stay orders may lead to a miscarriage of justice highlights the need for a more nuanced approach.

Key provisions of the 2018 Asian Resurfacing judgment:

• Automatic Vacation of Stay Orders:
  • The primary provision mandated that interim stay orders issued by High Courts in civil and criminal cases would automatically expire after six months from the date of the order.
  • This rule applied unless the High Court expressly extended the stay.
• Judicial Discretion Limited to Six Months:
  • The judgment limited the discretion of High Courts to grant stays for more than six months.
  • Any extension beyond this period required a specific and reasoned order.
• Judicial Legislation Concerns:
  • The Supreme Court, in its recent ruling overturning Asian Resurfacing, expressed concerns about the judgment’s directions, stating that it amounted to judicial legislation.
  • The court highlighted that automatic vacation of stay orders and the disposal of cases on a day-to-day basis through such directives exceeded the judiciary’s jurisdiction.
• Article 142 of the Constitution:
  • The judgment invoked Article 142 of the Constitution, which empowers the Supreme Court to pass orders for securing the ends of justice.
  • The recent ruling, however, clarified that Article 142 cannot be used to issue a blanket direction automatically vacating stay orders.
• Impact on High Court Jurisdiction:
  • The 2018 judgment’s provisions, according to the recent ruling, could have resulted in limiting the jurisdiction of High Courts under Article 226 of the Constitution, which empowers them to issue writs.
• Concerns Over Miscarriage of Justice:
  • The recent Supreme Court ruling noted reservations about the potential miscarriage of justice due to the automatic vacation of stay orders.
  • It highlighted that delays in legal proceedings might not always be attributed to the conduct of parties involved but could also result from the court’s inability to expedite proceedings.

SOURCE: https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/supreme-court-overturns-2018-asian-resurfacing-judgment-automatic-stay-vacation-six-months-250797?infinitescroll=1

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary near Ahmedabad, Gujarat, witnessed a historic moment as a Bengaluru couple, on a birding expedition, spotted the critically endangered yellow-breasted bunting.

EXPLANATION:

• This sighting, the second ever recorded in Gujarat and the first in Nal Sarovar, adds a significant feather to the rich avian diversity of this Ramsar site.
• The yellow-breasted bunting is a beautiful passerine bird with striking colors
• Yellow-breasted buntings, typically found in the Himalayan region and East and Central Asia.
• Size: This bunting is relatively large, ranging from 14 to 16 cm (5.5 to 6.3 in) in length and weighing 17 to 26 g (0.6 to 0.9 oz).
• Habitat: These birds prefer agricultural fields, meadows, and wetlands. They were once found in large numbers but are now sadly much less common.
• Distribution: The yellow-breasted bunting breeds across the Boreal and East Palearctic regions. It migrates to wintering grounds in Southeast Asia
• It has been classified as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to a steep decline in their population.
• The species is not known to winter in Gujarat, making this sighting an extraordinary event.
• The previous sighting of a yellow-breasted bunting in Gujarat occurred in 2019 at Pariege lake.
• This latest observation at Nal Sarovar is only the second in the state, emphasizing the rarity of the species in the region.

Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary:

• The Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary is located in the state of Gujarat, India.
• Specifically, it is situated in the Ahmedabad and Surendranagar districts of Gujarat.
• This sanctuary is approximately 64 kilometers (around 40 miles) to the west of the city of Ahmedabad, which is the largest city in Gujarat.
• The Ramsar Convention designation of Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary in 2012 recognized its ecological importance as a wetland habitat for birds and other wildlife.
• The designation provides a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of the sanctuary and its surrounding wetlands.
• It also acknowledges the socio-economic importance of the wetlands to the local communities who depend on them for their livelihoods.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/critically-endangered-yellow-breasted-bunting-sighted-for-first-time-in-gujarats-nal-sarovar-9187480/

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: The Supreme Court, through a nine-judge constitution bench led by Chief Justice, has delved into a crucial legal issue regarding the taxation of mineral rights.

EXPLANATION:

• The central question revolves around whether the royalty collected by the Centre on mining leases qualifies as a tax.
• The court emphasized the pivotal role of states in exercising the power to impose taxes on mineral rights.
• The Constitution, according to the Supreme Court, explicitly designates the authority to impose taxes on mineral rights to states, not Parliament.
• The bench highlighted the need to preserve and not dilute this authority, emphasizing that Parliament’s role is limited to imposing certain limitations to ensure smooth mineral development without obstructing the states’ taxing power.
• The court scrutinized Entry 50 of List 2 of the 7th Schedule of the Constitution, emphasizing that while Parliament can impose restrictions, it lacks the power to impose taxes on mineral rights.
• The Chief Justice pointed out that the power to impose taxes is exclusively given to the states.
• The distinction between regulating mineral development and taxing mineral rights is crucial to understanding the constitutional framework.

States’ Taxing Power and Critical Distinctions:

• The court asserted that the power to impose taxes on mineral rights remains solely with the states, highlighting the limited areas under the Constitution where states possess taxing power.
• This distinction is deemed critical to ensuring the preservation of states’ authority in matters related to taxation, particularly in areas like mineral rights.

Attorney General’s Position:

• The Attorney General (AG) contended that activities related to minerals, from birth to the completion of mineral activities, fall under mineral rights.
• However, the AG suggested a nuanced reading of Entry 50, stating that while there is no explicit power to tax mineral rights, Parliament can impose limitations related to mineral development.
• The hearing remains inconclusive.
• The court sought clarity from the AG on whether Parliament can unequivocally impose a tax on mineral rights. The AG’s response is awaited, and the proceedings are set to resume on March 5.

Historical Context:

• The legal dispute stems from a 1989 verdict that considered royalty on minerals as a tax.
• Subsequent conflicting rulings, including a 2004 decision, led to the current deliberation by a nine-judge bench.
• The court is addressing 86 appeals filed by mining entities, public sector undertakings, and state governments, seeking resolution and clarity on the taxation of mineral rights.
• The outcome of this legal battle will have significant implications for mineral development in India.
• Balancing the regulatory framework while safeguarding states’ taxing powers is essential to fostering a conducive environment for both economic development and resource conservation.

SOURCE: https://theprint.in/india/parliament-doesnt-have-power-to-impose-tax-on-mineral-rights-states-do-sc/1984063/

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: India, under the leadership of Mines Minister, has initiated the second phase of its critical minerals auction, a significant economic move with an estimated worth of 30 trillion rupees (approximately $362 billion).

EXPLANATION:

• This strategic auction aims to tap into the vast mineral potential across the country, with a focus on essential elements like tungsten, vanadium, cobalt, and nickel.
• The auction encompasses 18 critical mineral blocks spread across eight states, namely Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.
• These states are poised to play a pivotal role in India’s mineral landscape.
• Seventeen of the mineral blocks are designated for a composite license, allowing comprehensive exploration and subsequent mining. Additionally, one block is specifically allocated for a mining lease.
• The chosen states reflect a diverse geographical spread, showcasing India’s rich mineral deposits across different regions.
• This strategic approach ensures a balanced and comprehensive exploration of critical minerals, contributing to the nation’s economic growth.

Inclusive Exploration Licenses:

• As part of the auction, five states – Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, and Rajasthan – will conduct auctions for exploration licenses dedicated to critical minerals.
• This nuanced approach emphasizes the importance of thorough exploration before mining activities commence.

Participation and Bidders:

• In the initial round of the first part of auctions launched in November the previous year, the government garnered substantial interest with 56 bids from various entities.
• Notable participants included Vedanta Ltd, Coal India, Shree Cement, Ola Electric, Dalmia group, and Jindal Power.
• This diverse range of participants highlights the cross-industry interest in securing access to critical minerals.
• The second round of bidding for the first tranche of auctions is scheduled for mid-March, with the bid winner announcement expected in mid-April.
• This structured timeline ensures a transparent and efficient process, fostering a competitive environment among bidders.

Critical Minerals:

• Critical minerals are those minerals that are essential for economic development and national security, the lack of availability of these minerals or concentration of extraction or processing in a few geographical locations may lead to supply chain vulnerabilities and even disruption of supplies.

SOURCE: https://theprint.in/india/india-launches-second-part-of-critical-minerals-auction-worth-362-billion/1983885/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) recently unveiled a groundbreaking discovery, a new species of head-shield sea slug named Melanochlamys droupadi.

EXPLANATION:

• This unique marine creature has been christened in honor of President Droupadi Murmu and was found along the coasts of West Bengal and Odisha.
• The discovery is highlighted in a scientific paper authored by ZSI researchers.

Taxonomy and Morphological Characteristics:

• Melanochlamys droupadi belongs to the Melanochlamys genus.
• It distinguishes itself with a short, blunt, and cylindrical body.
• Its dorsal surface is smooth and adorned with two shields – the anterior cephalic and posterior shield.
• Notably, the species features a captivating ruby red spot, a characteristic not observed in any other known sea slug.
• The detailed study reveals that Melanochlamys droupadi engages in continuous secretion of transparent mucus, forming a protective sheath to prevent sand grains from entering its parapodial space.

• The discovery sites for Melanochlamys droupadi are Digha of West Bengal coast and Udaipur of Odisha coast.
• The species, measuring up to a maximum length of 7 mm, is characterized by its brownish-black coloration and hermaphroditic nature.
• Notably, it leaves crawl marks on sandy beaches as it moves along the intertidal zone.
• The confirmation of the species has been affirmed through a meticulous examination of morphological, anatomical, and molecular characteristics.

Behavior and Reproduction:

• According to the ZSI statement, Melanochlamys droupadi exhibits intriguing behaviors.
• The sea slug crawls beneath smooth sand, forming a moving capsule where its body is rarely visible.
• Reproduction for this species is noted to occur between November and January, adding to its unique biological characteristics.

Type Specimens and Conservation Status:

• The type specimens of Melanochlamys droupadi have been deposited in the Marine Aquarium and Regional Centre, Digha, and the Estuarine Biology and Regional Centre, Gopalpur.
• This scientific documentation not only contributes to the understanding of marine biodiversity but also aids in conservation efforts for this newly discovered species.

Global Distribution and Comparative Analysis:

• While species of the Melanochlamys genus are generally found in temperate regions of the Indo-Pacific Oceanic realm, Melanochlamys droupadi stands out as one of the truly tropical distributed species.
• This uniqueness is emphasized by the fact that it joins the ranks of only three species within the group that are found in tropical regions.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/zsi-names-a-newly-discovered-head-shield-sea-slug-after-president-droupadi-murmu/article67899807.ece/amp/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The vibrant streets of Mexico City, known for their annual transformation into a purple spectacle, are witnessing an unprecedented event this year. The iconic jacaranda trees, celebrated for their beauty and ecological significance, have started blooming far earlier than usual, triggering both curiosity and concern among residents and scientists.

EXPLANATION:

• Traditionally, the jacaranda trees in Mexico City begin to bloom towards the end of March, signaling the arrival of spring.
• However, this year, a notable number of jacarandas have started flowering as early as January, a period when they are expected to remain dormant during the winter months.
• This unexpected phenomenon has raised alarm bells, prompting scientists to explore the root causes.
• Local scientists from the Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate Change Research at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), are leading investigations into the extent of this early-bloom phenomenon.
• The need for a comprehensive analysis by comparing blooming patterns year to year has been emphasized.
• He attributes the early blossoms to climate change, pointing out that rising temperatures caused winter in Mexico City to conclude prematurely in mid-January, contrary to the usual late March.
• Utilizing satellite imagery and on-the-ground observations, the aim was to establish a correlation between the rising temperatures and the premature blooming of jacarandas.
• This approach reflects a proactive stance towards understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change.

Historical Roots: Jacarandas as a Cultural and Environmental Staple

• The jacaranda’s presence in Mexico City has deep historical roots.
• Initially inspired by the Japanese cherry trees, President opted for jacarandas due to their adaptability to the city’s temperate climate.
• Introduced by Japanese landscape architect Tatsugoro Matsumoto in the late 19th century, jacarandas have since become an integral part of the city’s landscape, providing aesthetic beauty and ecological benefits.

• Jacaranda mimosifolia is a sub-tropical tree native to south-central South America that has been widely planted elsewhere because of its attractive and long-lasting violet-colored flowers.
• It is also known as the jacaranda, blue jacaranda, black poui, Nupur or fern tree.
• The tree grows to a height of up to 20 m (66 ft).Its bark is thin and grey-brown, smooth when the tree is young but eventually becoming finely scaly.
• While not native to Mexico, jacarandas play a crucial role in the city’s ecosystem.
• They attract a diverse range of pollinators, including hummingbirds and bees, more than many native trees.
• Any alteration in the flowering pattern could have cascading effects on these populations, emphasizing the interconnectedness of nature and the potential consequences of climate change on urban biodiversity.

Conclusion: A City in Bloom and in Flux

• As Mexico City witnesses the premature blossoming of its beloved jacaranda trees, the spectacle that once symbolized the arrival of spring now serves as a stark reminder of the ecological changes brought about by climate change. The collaborative efforts of scientists, coupled with public awareness, provide a foundation for understanding and addressing the challenges posed by this early-bloom phenomenon, emphasizing the need for sustainable practices to preserve the cultural and environmental significance of the iconic jacarandas.

SOURCE: https://theprint.in/world/early-jacaranda-bloom-sparks-debate-about-climate-change-in-mexico/1978322/

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: The Nagaland government faces a complex challenge in regulating small-scale illegal coal mining activities due to the constitutional provisions outlined in Article 371A.

EXPLANATION:

• The difficulties in implementing regulations have become more apparent after a recent tragedy in a rat-hole mine, prompting calls for stringent measures.
• We will look into the specifics of the issue, addressing the clash between regulatory efforts and constitutional safeguards.

Article 371A and Its Impact:

• Article 371A of the Indian Constitution, tailored for Nagaland, provides special provisions safeguarding land, resources, and Naga customary laws.
• When Nagaland (erstwhile Naga Hills and Tuensang Area) was given the status of a State by the Constitution (13th Amendment) Act 1962 in the Indian Union, Article 371A was inserted into Part XXI of the Constitution.
• Article 371A allows Special Constitutional Provisions to the State and thus reads:
  • Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, no Act of Parliament in respect of
    • Religious or social practices of the Nagas,
    • Naga customary law and procedure,
    • Administration of civil and criminal justice involving decisions according to Naga customary law,
    • Ownership and transfer of land and its resources,
  • Shall apply to the State of Nagaland unless the Legislative Assembly of Nagaland by a resolution so decides.
• However, this constitutional protection poses a significant obstacle for the Nagaland government in its attempts to regulate and bring accountability to small-scale coal mining operations.

Coal Mining Landscape in Nagaland:

• Nagaland has 45 coal mining license holders spread across five districts – Longleng, Mokokchung, Mon, Tuensang, and Wokha.
• These districts have become hotspots for numerous illegal and unscientific coal mining activities, posing threats to human and environmental health.
• A recent incident in a rat-hole mine in Wokha, where six miners lost their lives in an explosion, has intensified the need for effective regulation.
• The coalition government led by Chief Minister Neiphiu Rio has faced public pressure to address the safety and environmental concerns associated with coal mining.

Article 371A as a Hurdle:

• During the Nagaland Assembly session, Chief Minister and Deputy Chief Minister acknowledged that Article 371A complicates efforts to ensure scientific and accountable coal mining practices.
• The constitutional provisions, combined with the prevailing community-based land-holding system, create challenges in holding mines accountable and enforcing responsible mining practices.
• Deputy Chief Minister highlighted the unique land rights conferred by Article 371A, making it more challenging to regulate illegal coal mining activities.
• Residents in coal-bearing areas often depend on such activities for sustenance, and there is a need for education on the adverse effects of these operations.

Rat-Hole Mining Dynamics:

• Nagaland’s coal mining policy allows for rat-hole mining due to the dispersed nature of coal deposits.
• Leases termed “small pocket deposit licenses” are granted to individuals, not companies.
• Despite the regulatory framework, illegal rat-hole mining persists, with individuals operating without proper clearances or adherence to mining plans.
• The Chief Minister emphasized the importance of reclaiming mined areas.
• He urged contractors and businesspersons involved in mining activities to take responsibility for land reclamation, ensuring the filling up of rat-hole mines and planting trees to prevent leaving barren land.
• The government stresses the need to hold violators of mining guidelines accountable.

Rat Hole Mining:

• Rat hole mining is a method of extracting coal from narrow, horizontal seams, prevalent in Meghalaya.
• The term “rat hole” refers to the narrow pits dug into the ground, typically just large enough for one person to descend and extract coal.
• Once the pits are dug, miners descend using ropes or bamboo ladders to reach the coal seams.
• The coal is then manually extracted using primitive tools such as pickaxes, shovels, and baskets.

Conclusion:

• The clash between coal mining regulations and the protective measures outlined in Article 371A creates a complex regulatory landscape in Nagaland. The recent tragedy has underscored the urgency for effective regulation to ensure the safety of miners and mitigate environmental risks. Balancing the constitutional safeguards with the need for sustainable mining practices poses a significant challenge, requiring a nuanced approach and collaborative efforts from various stakeholders.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/coal-mining-regulations-hit-article-371a-wall-in-nagaland/article67894628.ece