TAG: GS 1: GEOGRAPHY

THE CONTEXT: Kodagu, a district in Southern Karnataka known for its lush landscapes and coffee estates, is grappling with an unprecedented drought crisis.

EXPLANATION:

• The iconic Cauvery River, originating from Talakaveri has dwindled to a trickle, posing threats to wildlife, livelihoods, and the environment.
• Groundwater levels have witnessed a notable decrease over the past decade. Data spanning from 2014 to 2023 indicates a consistent decline in the static water levels of both dug wells and borewells.
• According to records from the district groundwater office, borewell groundwater levels plummeted to 15.7 metres (m) in 2023, from 13.4 m in 2014. A minor improvement was noted at 12.9 m in 2018.
• Similarly, the groundwater level in dug wells exhibited a downward trajectory, decreasing to 6.7 m from 6 m during the same period, with a temporary upturn observed at 5.8 m in 2021.

Causes of the Drought Crisis:

• Altered Rainfall Patterns: Kodagu, once characterized by abundant rainfall, is now experiencing erratic precipitation patterns attributed to climate change.
• Water Extraction: Increased extraction of water during drought exacerbates the decline in groundwater levels, worsening the crisis.
• Rapid Urbanization: Uncontrolled urban expansion and land conversion for commercial purposes contribute to environmental degradation and water scarcity.
• Land Conversion: Conversion of coffee estates into housing layouts for tourism development further diminishes green cover and exacerbates ecological challenges.

Impacts on Environment and Economy:

• Wildlife Deprivation: Diminished water sources adversely affect wildlife, particularly elephants reliant on the Cauvery for sustenance, leading to conflicts and endangerment of species.
• Loss of Livelihoods: The drought disrupts livelihoods dependent on the river’s vitality, including tourism, agriculture, and related industries, leading to economic losses and social upheaval.
• Coffee Crop Failure: The backbone of Kodagu’s economy, coffee farming, faces a dual threat of accelerated blossoms due to the sun and crop failure due to rain scarcity, causing distress among growers and impacting India’s coffee production.

Community Concerns and Activism:

• Local Activism: Concerned locals and environmental activists advocate for stringent measures to mitigate the crisis, including catchment area conservation policies and regulations on land use and tourism activities.
• Political Advocacy: Organizations like the Kodava National Council (CNC) highlight the ecological and cultural significance of Kodagu, urging authorities to halt large-scale land conversions and hold accountable those responsible for environmental degradation.

Proposed Solutions and Mitigation Strategies:

• Catchment Area Conservation: Implementation of policies to protect essential river catchments, including limitations on land conversion and controls on urban expansion, to safeguard Kodagu’s delicate ecology.
• Regulation of Tourism: Stringent regulations on tourism activities to prevent further degradation of natural habitats and mitigate human-wildlife conflicts.
• Sustainable Agriculture Practices: Promotion of sustainable farming practices to conserve water resources and mitigate the impact of climate change on agriculture.
• Community Engagement: Involvement of local communities in conservation efforts and sustainable resource management to ensure long-term resilience against drought and environmental degradation.

Cauvery River:

• The Kaveri is one of the major Indian rivers flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• The Kaveri River rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats, Kodagu district of the state of Karnataka, at an elevation of 1,341 m above mean sea level and flows for about 800 km before its outfall into the Bay of Bengal.
• It reaches the sea in Poompuhar, in Mayiladuthurai district.
• It is the third largest river – after Godavari and Krishna – in southern India, and the largest in the state of Tamil Nadu, which, on its course, bisects the state into north and south.
• In ancient Tamil literature, the river was also called Ponni (the golden mother, in reference to the fine silt it deposits).
• The Kaveri is a sacred river to the people of southern India and is worshipped as the Goddess Kaveramme (Mother Cauvery).
• It is considered to be among the seven holy rivers of India. It is extensively used for agriculture in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/drought-grips-kodagu-cauvery-river-runs-dry-posing-threat-to-wildlife-and-livelihoods-95931

THE CONTEXT: The record-breaking Goods and Services Tax (GST) collections in India for April exceeded ₹2 lakh crore for the first time, reflecting a 12.4% increase from the previous year. This peak is attributed to the fiscal year-end activities in March, where businesses finalize their accounts and comply with tax obligations. While this spike is significant, it may not represent a new norm for monthly GST collections.

ISSUES:

• Record-High GST Collections: April 2024 saw GST revenues surpass the ₹2 lakh crore mark for the first time, reaching approximately ₹2.1 lakh crore. This represents a 12.4% increase from the previous year’s April, which had a collection of ₹1.87 lakh crore, previously the highest.
• Economic Momentum and Efficient Collections: The significant rise in GST collections is attributed to strong economic momentum and more efficient tax collection Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman highlighted these factors as key contributors to the landmark revenue figures.
• Impact of Year-End Financial Activities: The spike in April’s GST collections is partly due to the fiscal year-end activities in March, where businesses finalize their accounts and make necessary tax adjustments. This seasonal effect suggests that while April’s collections are high, subsequent months might see more moderate figures.
• Future Revenue Projections and Budget Implications: Given the current economic trends and the GST’s performance, future revenue growth is expected to remain within the 11%- 12% range seen last year. This projection is crucial for meeting the revenue targets set in the interim Budget for 2024-25, which now require less than 10% growth due to the overshooting of last year’s targets.
• GST Reforms and Political Promises: Both major political parties, the BJP and Congress, have outlined their visions for further simplifying the GST structure. The BJP aims to enhance the GST portal for small businesses, while the Congress advocates for a single moderate tax rate with minimal exceptions. These reforms are essential for expanding the GST net and simplifying the tax system, which could stimulate further economic growth and investment.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Simplification of the GST Rate Structure: A complex rate structure leads to confusion among taxpayers and administrative challenges. Learning from countries with a successful GST/VAT model, India could aim to simplify its GST rate structure. This could involve reducing the number of tax slabs and ensuring that most goods and services fall under a single or minimal number of tax rates.
• Enhancing the GST Compliance and IT Infrastructure: The GST Network (GSTN) is crucial in administering GST in India. Drawing from countries like Singapore and Australia, where technology plays a central role in tax administration, India could further enhance its IT infrastructure to ensure seamless compliance. This includes improving the GST portal’s user interface for easier navigation, ensuring the stability of the system during peak filing periods, and integrating advanced analytics for better compliance monitoring and fraud detection.
• Expanding the GST Base and Rationalizing Exemptions: To increase revenue without increasing the tax rate, expanding the tax base is essential. This involves bringing more sectors and goods under the GST ambit and rationalizing exemptions. Learning from the European Union’s VAT system, where very few items are exempted, India could review and minimize its list of exempted goods and services. This would not only broaden the tax base but also reduce the cascading effect of taxes.
• Strengthening Anti-fraud Measures: Adopting stringent anti-fraud measures is crucial to combat tax evasion and improve revenue collection. Countries like the UK have implemented sophisticated data analytics and artificial intelligence tools to detect patterns indicative of fraud. India could adopt similar technologies to identify and act against tax evasion practices like fake invoicing more effectively. Additionally, increasing the penalties for fraud and improving the efficiency of the legal process for tax disputes can act as deterrents.
• Fostering Cooperative Federalism: The GST in India is a landmark reform that requires cooperation between the central and state governments. Drawing from the Canadian GST/HST model, where there is a harmonized sales tax adopted by most provinces, India could further strengthen the mechanism of cooperative federalism. This involves ensuring that the GST Council functions as a robust platform for consensus-building among states and the Centre on GST rates, exemptions, and other policy decisions. Encouraging more uniformity in the implementation and administration of GST across states would also be beneficial.

THE CONCLUSION:

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman highlighted the robust GST collections as indicative of a strong economy and effective tax administration. The ongoing efforts to combat tax fraud and enhance compliance have significantly boosted revenues. The GST system needs reforms to make it simpler and to increase the tax base. Major political parties have promised to improve the GST framework for better economic growth.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTIONS:

Q.1 Explain the significance of the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act. To what extent does it reflect the accommodative spirit of federalism? 2023

Q.2 Explain the salient features of the Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016. Do you think it is efficacious enough ‘to remove the cascading effect of taxes and provide for a common national market for goods and services? 2017

Q.3 Enumerate the indirect taxes that have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India in July 2017. 2019

Q.4 Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions? 2020

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q.1 Discuss the role of GST in shaping India’s economic trajectory and the necessary reforms needed to enhance its efficiency and inclusivity. Examine the implications of sustained revenue growth on fiscal planning and the potential for GST reforms.

SOURCE:

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/%E2%80%8Btipping-point-on-the-gst-and-reforms/article68132422.ece

THE CONTEXT: The global trade environment has been highly volatile in recent years, primarily due to the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent geopolitical conflicts. This volatility led to a continuous decline in the value of global merchandise trade since mid-2022, with a notable 4.6% drop in global merchandise exports in 2023. Despite these challenges, India’s merchandise exports showed resilience, performing better than the broader developing Asian market, though still experiencing a decline.

THE ISSUES:

• Impact of Global Economic Uncertainty and Commodity Prices: Global trade has been volatile due to the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts, leading to a continuous shrinkage in global merchandise trade since mid-2022. In 2023, global merchandise exports fell by 4.6%. India’s merchandise exports fell by 3.1% in 2023-24 to $437.1 billion from the previous year, influenced by lower international commodity prices, particularly crude oil, which saw a significant price drop of $13 per barrel.
• Sector-Specific Export Performance: Despite the overall decline, certain sectors showed robust growth. Electronics goods exports grew by 24%, driven by the Production Linked Incentive scheme, enhancing the export of telecom instruments or mobile handsets. Core exports excluding petroleum and gems & jewellery were up by 1.4%, indicating a higher volume of goods shipped despite the price decline in commodities.
• The decline in Labor-Intensive Export Sectors: There was a notable decline in exports from labour-intensive sectors such as gems and jewellery, textiles, leather, and marine products. For instance, the share of gems and jewellery in India’s merchandise exports decreased from 13.2% in 2014-15 to 7.5% in 2023-24. This decline is concerning as these sectors are significant employment generators and contribute substantially to India’s export earnings.
• Geographical Diversification of Exports: Exports to the United States, India’s largest market, contracted due to growth being led by the services sector rather than goods. However, there has been an uptick in recent months. Exports to the Euro region and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, particularly the UAE, showed growth. Notably, India’s gems and jewellery exports to the UAE increased by 42.3% from April-February 2023-24.
• Influence of Global and Domestic Policies: Global economic slowdowns, geopolitical uncertainties, and domestic policies like the ban on non-basmati rice and wheat exports influence India’s trade dynamics. Policy-driven initiatives like the Production Linked Incentive scheme have successfully bolstered sectors like electronics, showcasing the potential impact of supportive government policies on export growth.
• Future Outlook and Strategic Moves: The outlook for India’s exports appears promising with upward revisions to global growth and trade projections by entities like S&P Global and the World Trade Organization (WTO). The ongoing negotiations and potential free-trade agreements with major economies, coupled with a push towards manufacturing, are expected to further enhance India’s export capabilities in the near to medium term.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Expand Geographical Reach: India should continue to explore new markets beyond traditional partners. This includes strengthening trade relations with countries in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Maximizing the benefits of existing FTAs and exploring new bilateral and multilateral trade agreements can help mitigate risks associated with geopolitical tensions and market fluctuations.
• Enhancing Product Diversification: India should capitalize on sectors showing robust growth such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, and engineering goods. Investing in these sectors can help offset declines in more traditional exports like textiles and gems. Moving up the value chain by focusing on the production of finished goods rather than intermediate goods can fetch higher margins and reduce vulnerability to raw material price fluctuations.
• Strengthening Domestic Manufacturing: Continuing and expanding initiatives like the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme can enhance manufacturing capabilities, particularly in high-potential sectors like electronics and pharmaceuticals.
• Enhance Compliance and Standards: Strengthening the compliance of Indian products with international standards can reduce barriers to entry in strict markets, particularly in sectors like food and pharmaceuticals.
• Enhancing Trade Facilitation: Simplifying and digitizing export processes can reduce the time and cost associated with exporting goods, making Indian products more competitive. Ensuring easier access to trade finance, especially for small and medium enterprises (SMEs), can help these businesses expand their export capabilities.
• Strategic Use of Economic Diplomacy: Leveraging diplomatic channels to promote trade interests can help in securing favourable terms in trade negotiations and in resolving trade disputes.

THE CONCLUSION:

India’s export sector has shown signs of recovery and resilience amidst global trade uncertainties and declining international commodity prices. The growth in electronics exports, spurred by government incentives, alongside healthy growth in other core sectors, indicates a positive trajectory. With global growth and trade projections looking up and India engaging in bilateral free-trade agreements, the future for India’s exports appears promising, though global instability and geopolitical tensions remain potential risks.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTIONS:

Q.1 Account for the failure of the manufacturing sector to achieve the goal of labour-intensive exports rather than capital-intensive exports. Suggest measures for more labour-intensive rather than capital-intensive exports. 2017

Q.2 What are the key areas of reform if the WTO must survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India? 2018

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q.1 Analyze the impact of global economic fluctuations and geopolitical tensions on India’s merchandise exports in the fiscal year 2023-24. Discuss the role of sector-specific policies, such as the Production Linked Incentive scheme, in mitigating these impacts and suggest measures to enhance the resilience of India’s export sectors.

SOURCE:

https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/in-an-uncertain-world-indias-trade-push-9302171/

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: Recent accusations by Estonia against Russia of jamming GPS navigation devices in airspace above the Baltic states have drawn attention to the growing problem of GPS interference.

EXPLANATION:

• This interference poses significant challenges for aviation safety and navigation, highlighting the need for comprehensive understanding and mitigation strategies.

Baltic States:

• The Baltic states or the Baltic countries is a geopolitical term encompassing Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
• All three countries are members of NATO, the European Union, the Eurozone, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
• The three sovereign states on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea are sometimes referred to as the “Baltic nations”, less often and in historical circumstances also as the “Baltic republics”, the “Baltic lands”, or simply the Baltics.

       Baltic States

What is GPS Jamming and Spoofing?

• GPS, or Global Positioning System, is a vital navigation tool utilized in aviation, providing accurate positioning, navigation, and timing data.
• GPS is one of the more important navigation tools in aviation, which has replaced expensive ground devices that would transmit radio beams to guide planes towards landing.
• GPS jamming involves the deliberate disruption of GPS signals using frequency transmitting devices, which emit signals stronger than satellite-based signals, thereby interfering with radio communications.
• Spoofing, on the other hand, entails the transmission of false GPS signals to deceive receivers, leading to incorrect time or coordinates readings.
• While jamming disrupts signals, spoofing can potentially mislead pilots and air traffic control systems, posing greater risks to aviation safety.

Occurrence and Regional Impact

• Instances of GPS interference have been reported globally, particularly in conflict zones and regions near war zones.
• In the Middle East, for example, spoofing incidents have affected private and commercial jets around Iraq, Iran, Israel, and the Black Sea.
• The Baltic countries have also experienced increased jamming activities, especially since the conflict in Ukraine began in 2022.
• The surge in interference around the Baltic Sea has raised concerns among aviation authorities and pilots, necessitating enhanced awareness and response measures.

Challenges for Airlines and Aviation Safety

• GPS interference presents significant challenges for airlines, as modern airliners heavily rely on GPS for navigation.
• While alternative sensors and navigation sources exist, GPS remains a primary tool for flight operations. Interference can lead to stress and delays during take-off and landing, as certain procedures require GPS functionality.
• Additionally, private jets that rely solely on GPS navigation may face heightened risks in the event of interference.
• Despite efforts to develop technological solutions, the diverse nature of jamming and spoofing devices complicates mitigation efforts, prompting a focus on pilot training to identify and respond to interference promptly.

GPS:

• GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a satellite-based radio navigation system that provides location, velocity, and time data to users with GPS receivers.
• Here are the key points about how GPS works:
  • GPS uses a constellation of 24 satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of about 20,000 km.
  • Each satellite continuously broadcasts its position and the time according to its onboard atomic clock.
  • A GPS receiver on the ground measures the time it takes for the signals from multiple GPS satellites to reach it. By calculating the distance to at least four satellites using this time delay, the receiver can determine its three-dimensional position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) through a process called trilateration.
  • The accuracy of unaugmented civilian GPS is typically around 10 meters horizontally and 15 meters vertically.
  • More precise GPS applications, such as those used by the military or with additional ground-based augmentation systems, can achieve accuracies of 1 meter or less.
  • GPS has a wide range of applications, including navigation, surveying, scientific research, recreation, and more.
  • Ongoing improvements to GPS, such as the launch of more advanced GPS III satellites, are expected to further enhance the system’s accuracy, reliability, and capabilities in the future.

SOURCE: https://www.deccanherald.com/science/explained-what-is-gps-jamming-and-why-is-it-a-problem-for-aviation-3002127

TAG: GS 1: GEOGRAPHY

THE CONTEXT: The recent bursting of a dam in Kenya’s Nakuru County adds to a series of tragic events that have occurred due to heavy rainfall and inadequate infrastructure.

EXPLANATION:

• The incident highlights the vulnerability of communities to natural disasters and raises concerns about the effectiveness of disaster preparedness and response measures.
• As of April 27, all dams under the Seven Forks dams — which include Masinga, Kaburu, Gitaru, Kindaruma, and Kiambere — were at full capacity amid concerns of a massive overflow downstream within the next 24 hours.
  • The Seven Forks dams, also known as the Seven Forks Hydro Stations, are a series of hydroelectric power stations located along the Tana River in Kenya.
  • The dams are operated by the Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen) and are designed to harness the energy potential of the river to generate electricity for the country.
  • The dams are constructed in a cascading manner, with each dam taking advantage of the head created by the previous one to produce power. The dams are:
    • Masinga Power Station: 40MW
    • Kamburu Power Station: 94.20MW
    • Gitaru Power Station: 225.25MW
    • Kindaruma Power Station: 72MW
    • Kiambere Power Station: 168MW

Cause of the Dam Burst and Impact

• The government of Kenya attributes the dam burst to a blockage in an underpass or tunnel that channels water to the Tongi river.
• The heavy rainfall in the region led to the deposition of debris, stones, and soil, which blocked the tunnel and ultimately caused it to burst.
• This highlights the susceptibility of infrastructure to damage during extreme weather events and underscores the importance of robust infrastructure planning and maintenance.
• The tragic event resulted in the loss of 45 lives, with a significant number of victims being children, women, and elderly men.
• The incident adds to the death toll from the ongoing long rainy season in Kenya, which has already claimed over 160 lives.
• The loss of lives underscores the urgency of improving disaster preparedness and response mechanisms to minimize casualties in future events.

Past Incidents

• The dam tragedy at the village of Kamuchiri near the town of Mai Mahiu is not the first one in Kenya.
• In 2018, a similar incident occurred at the Solai dam, also in Nakuru County in the Rift Valley during heavy rains, killing 48 people.
• It resulted from a makeshift private dam bursting its banks, sending water gushing downhill across homesteads.
• The recurrence of such events highlights the need for comprehensive risk assessment and mitigation strategies to address vulnerabilities in dam infrastructure.
• Additionally, lessons must be learned from past incidents to prevent similar tragedies in the future.

Community Impact and Response Efforts

• The bursting of the dam had devastating consequences for the affected communities, with homes destroyed, crops damaged, and farmlands submerged.
• The government, alongside organizations like the Kenya Red Cross, has launched a coordinated search and rescue operation to assess the full impact of the disaster and provide support to affected individuals.
• Medical attention and psychosocial support are being provided to survivors, highlighting the importance of holistic disaster response efforts.

Broader Implications and Regional Context

• The heavy rains and flash floods have not only affected Kenya but also neighboring countries like Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
• The widespread impact underscores the transboundary nature of natural disasters and the need for regional cooperation in disaster management and response.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/africa/kenya-why-did-the-nakuru-dam-burst-channel-blocked-by-rain-swept-debris-the-reason-says-government-95911

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: G7 Ministerial on Climate, Energy and Environment, in which Italy holds the Presidency of the group this year, made it clear that a timeline to phaseout coal was high on the agenda.

EXPLANATION:

• The G7 nations, comprising some of the world’s wealthiest economies, play a crucial role in setting the tone for global climate action.
• Their annual summits often serve as precursors to broader international agreements, influencing platforms like the G20 and UNFCCC COP meetings.
• However, despite the urgency of transitioning away from fossil fuels, particularly coal, the G7’s recent efforts have fallen short of providing concrete commitments aligned with global climate goals.

Uncertain Commitments and Ambiguous Timelines

• While Italy pushed for a coal phaseout agreement during the recent G7 Ministerial on Climate, Energy, and Environment, the resulting commitment lacked the specificity needed to drive meaningful action.
• The agreement vaguely aims to phase out existing unabated coal power generation by the “first half of 2030s or in a timeline consistent with keeping a limit of 1.5°C temperature rise within reach.”
• This ambiguity allows room for extending the phaseout timeline beyond the 2030s, undermining the urgency required to meet climate targets.

G7 Member Performance on Coal Reduction

• An analysis reveals significant disparities among G7 members in reducing coal usage since the Paris Agreement.
• While the UK and France have made substantial reductions, other members, notably Japan, have shown minimal progress.
• The lack of a unified commitment to rapidly phase out coal underscores a broader lack of urgency and leadership in emissions reduction efforts.

Reduction in coal for electricity generation (2015-2022)

Internal Politics and External Pressures

• Internal politics within the EU, particularly regarding coal-dependent member states like Poland, have hindered the establishment of ambitious phaseout targets.
• Similarly, domestic considerations have influenced the U.S.’s reluctance to commit to a coal phaseout timeline, despite a halt in new coal power plant construction since 2013.
• Japan’s significant reliance on coal and advocacy for unproven technologies further complicates the issue, with the flexible language in the communique potentially benefiting its prolonged use of coal.

Equity Concerns and Historical Responsibility

• Developed nations, including G7 members, bear historical responsibility as major contributors to carbon emissions and fossil fuel consumption.
• Failure to swiftly phase out coal not only perpetuates environmental harm but also undermines the principle of equity in climate action.
• Expecting emerging and developing economies to commit to coal phaseout without decisive action from the wealthiest nations is unjust and unsustainable.

The Role of Technology and Loopholes

• The focus on “unabated” coal power introduces loopholes, allowing for the exploration of unreliable technologies like carbon capture and storage (CCS).
• While touted as emission reduction solutions, these technologies have yet to prove their effectiveness at scale, potentially delaying genuine decarbonization efforts.

Other Commitments and Areas of Focus

• While the G7’s commitments on methane emissions reduction and finance mobilization are notable, there are concerns regarding the emphasis on transitional fuels like natural gas and the lack of substantive action addressing the debt crisis in developing countries.
• Additionally, while high-integrity carbon markets and carbon removal strategies are mentioned, the effectiveness of these measures remains to be seen.

G7:

• The Grougroup7 (G7) is an informal group of seven countries, the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United Kingdom, the heads of which hold an annual summit with the European Union and other invitees.
• Together the member countries represent 40% of global GDP and 10% of the world’s population.
• The G7 draws its roots from a meeting between the current G7 members, excluding Canada, that took place in 1975. At the time, the global economy was in a state of recession due to the OPEC oil embargo.
• After this first summit, the countries agreed to meet annually, and a year later, Canada was invited into the group marking the official formation of the G7 as we know it.
• The President of the European Commission was asked to join the meetings in 1977, and following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and a subsequent thaw in relations between the East and West, Russia was also invited to join the group 1998.
• Thereafter the group was named the G8 until 2014, when Russia was expelled for its annexation of Crimea from Ukraine.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/energy/g7-nations-drag-heels-on-coal-phaseout-despite-responsibility-to-lead-transition-95916

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The recent conclusion of the Global Plastics Treaty negotiations in Ottawa, Canada, has been met with disappointment by activist and environmentalist groups.

EXPLANATION:

• Despite nearly a week of deliberations involving representatives from 192 member countries, the talks fell short of delivering a legally binding agreement to “end plastic pollution.”
• This fourth round of discussions was particularly significant as it aimed to establish a timeline for halting primary plastic production, a crucial step towards addressing the plastic pollution crisis.

Challenges Hindering Progress

• Several formidable challenges impede the progress towards eliminating plastic pollution.
• The strong ties between plastics and the oil economies of influential countries, coupled with the extensive manufacturing infrastructure dedicated to producing and supplying various grades of plastics, present significant obstacles.
• Additionally, the widespread use of plastics across diverse applications, coupled with the lack of affordable and equivalent alternatives, further complicates efforts to curb plastic usage.

Fundamental Questions Unaddressed

• Critics highlight the failure of the negotiations to address the unsustainable production of plastics.
• This fundamental question remains unanswered, casting doubt on the efficacy of future treaty implementation efforts.

Outcome of the Talks

• Although the anticipated timeline for halting primary plastic production was not established, the participating countries agreed to proceed with more detailed assessments across various aspects of plastic usage and management.
• These include emissions, production, product design, waste management, identification of problematic plastics, financing mechanisms, and ensuring a just transition.
• Executive Director of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) acknowledges the progress made in advancing the text and outlining inter-sessional work required for further advancement.
• Inter-sessional work, comprising expert meetings between official INC sessions, is expected to facilitate agreement on key issues.
• The upcoming meeting scheduled for November 2024 in Busan, South Korea, is anticipated to be the final one.
• This gathering holds significance as it marks a crucial opportunity to finalize and adopt an ambitious deal to combat plastic pollution.

India’s Stance

• India’s opposition to restrictions on primary plastic production, arguing that such measures exceed the scope of UNEA resolutions, reflects the complexities involved in reaching consensus among member countries.
• While acknowledging the need to address chemicals used in plastic manufacturing, India emphasizes the importance of transparent and inclusive decision-making processes grounded in scientific evidence.

Domestic Efforts in India

• Despite opposing restrictions at the global level, India has implemented domestic measures to tackle plastic pollution.
• The Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules (2021) banned 19 categories of single-use plastics.
• However, challenges remain in enforcing these regulations uniformly across the country, with some outlets continuing to retail banned plastic items.

Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Plastic Pollution:

• In March 2022, at the resumed fifth session of the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA-5.2), a historic resolution was adopted to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment.
• The resolution (5/14) requested the Executive Director of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) to convene an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to develop “the instrument,”.
• It is to be based on a comprehensive approach that addresses the full life cycle of plastic, including its production, design, and disposal.
• The INC began its work during the second half of 2022, with the ambition to complete the negotiations by the end of 2024.
• The first session of the INC (INC-1) took place in Punta del Este, Uruguay from 28 November to 2 December 2022, followed by a second session (INC-2) from 29 May to 2 June 2023 in Paris, France, and a third session (INC-3) from 13 to 19 November 2023 in Nairobi, Kenya.
• The fourth session (INC-4) is scheduled for 23 to 29 April 2024 in Ottawa, Canada, and the fifth session (INC-5) on 25 November to 1 December 2024 in Busan, Republic of Korea.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP):

• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system.
• It was established after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972.
• Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.
• It sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for global environment protection.

United Nations Environment Assembly:

• The United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) is the governing body of the UN Environment Programme.
• It is the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment.
• It meets biennially to set priorities for global environmental policies and develop international environmental law.
• It was created in June 2012, during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, also referred to as RIO+20.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/plastic-treaty-talks-conclude-in-ottawa-with-little-progress/article68129024.ece

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: A recent study conducted by Indian space scientists, in collaboration with various institutions, including ISRO’s Space Applications Centre (SAC), sheds light on the enhanced possibility of water ice occurrence in the polar craters of the Moon.

EXPLANATION:

• This research unveils significant findings regarding the distribution, depth, and origin of water ice, utilizing advanced instruments aboard the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO).
• The study represents a collaborative effort between ISRO’s SAC, IIT Kanpur, University of Southern California, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and IIT (ISM) Dhanbad.
• This collaborative approach underscores the importance of pooling expertise and resources to unravel the mysteries of lunar water ice.

Magnitude of Sub-Surface Ice

• One of the key revelations of the study is the substantial presence of sub-surface ice in the polar regions, surpassing the amount found on the surface by a significant margin.
• The research indicates that within the first couple of meters beneath the surface, the quantity of ice is estimated to be five to eight times larger than that on the surface.
• Such findings underscore the potential abundance of water resources that could support future lunar exploration endeavors.

Regional Disparities

• Furthermore, the study highlights regional disparities in the distribution of water ice, with the northern polar region exhibiting twice the extent of ice compared to its southern counterpart.
• This geographical variation in ice distribution provides valuable insights for strategizing future missions and establishing long-term human presence on the Moon.

Origins of Lunar Water Ice

• Confirming previous hypotheses, the study attributes the primary source of sub-surface water ice in lunar poles to out-gassing during volcanism in the Imbrian period.
• This establishes a crucial link between lunar geological processes and the formation of water ice deposits, enriching our understanding of the Moon’s evolutionary history.

Factors Influencing Ice Distribution

• The research elucidates that the distribution of water ice is influenced by mare volcanism and preferential impact cratering.
• These geological factors play a significant role in shaping the spatial distribution of ice deposits across the lunar surface, offering valuable clues for identifying potential landing and sampling sites for future missions.

Instrumentation and Methodology

• To unravel the mysteries of lunar water ice, the research team employed a sophisticated array of instruments onboard the NASA LRO.
• These instruments include radar, laser, optical, neutron spectrometer, ultra-violet spectrometer, and thermal radiometer.
• Leveraging the capabilities of these instruments enabled comprehensive analysis and mapping of water ice distribution across the lunar poles.

Implications for Future Exploration

• Accurate knowledge of the distribution and depth of water ice occurrence presented in the study is paramount for informing future exploration missions.
• By mitigating uncertainties in site selection for landing and sampling, these findings pave the way for more targeted and successful lunar exploration endeavors.
• Additionally, the study bolsters ISRO’s future plans for in-situ volatile exploration on the Moon, reaffirming India’s commitment to advancing lunar research and exploration.

ISRO’s Space Applications Centre (SAC):

• Space Applications Centre (SAC) is a major research and development centre of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• It plays a key role in realizing vision and mission of ISRO. Located at Ahmedabad, SAC is spread across two campuses having multi-disciplinary activities.
• The genesis of the centre dates back to 1966, with establishment of the Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES), by late Dr. Vikram Sarabhai in Ahmedabad.
• It was an experimental Earth Station and training centre where scientists and engineers of India and other developing countries could receive training and firsthand experience in the design, development and operations of an earth station for communications and broadcasting.
• Later in 1972, the different units of ISRO in Ahmedabad pursuing research in applications of space technology were merged to form Space Applications Centre (SAC).
• The core competence of the centre lies in development of space borne and air borne instruments/payloads and their applications for national development and societal benefits.
• These applications are in diverse areas and primarily meet the communication, navigation and remote sensing needs of the country.
• Besides these, the centre also contributes significantly in scientific and planetary missions of ISRO like Chandrayan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission etc.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/isro-study-finds-evidence-of-enhanced-possibility-of-water-ice-in-polar-craters-of-moon/article68128061.ece

THE CONTEXT: A study led by scientists from the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, which forecasts the impact of global carbon emission trends on the Indian Ocean. It highlights the significant warming of the Indian Ocean, the increase in marine heatwaves, and their consequences, including the rapid formation of cyclones, coral bleaching, and harm to the fisheries sector. The study also points out the broader implications for India, such as more severe cyclones and erratic monsoon patterns, linking these phenomena to global warming and anthropogenic activities.

ISSUES:

• Increase in Marine Heatwaves: The Indian Ocean is experiencing a significant increase in marine heatwaves during extremely high sea temperatures. These heatwaves are expected to become more frequent and intense, potentially occurring 220-250 days per year by the end of the century, compared to the current average of 20 days per year.
• Impact on Cyclone Intensity and Frequency: The warming of the Indian Ocean is linked to an increase in the frequency and intensity of cyclones. This change is due to the higher sea surface temperatures, which provide more energy for cyclone formation.
• Effects on Monsoon Patterns: The marine heatwaves and overall warming of the Indian Ocean affect the monsoon, leading to more erratic and uneven patterns. This includes long spells of drought followed by intense rainfall and flooding, which can severely impact agriculture and water resources in India.
• Coral Bleaching and Damage to Marine Ecosystems: The increased temperatures and marine heatwaves are causing widespread coral bleaching and damage to aquatic ecosystems, which are crucial for the fisheries sector and biodiversity. This also affects the livelihoods of communities dependent on these resources.
• Need for Improved Data and Collaboration: There is a critical need for better data gathering and collaboration among countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The current data collection and monitoring efforts are insufficient compared to other regions like the Pacific. Enhanced international cooperation and investment in oceanographic research and infrastructure are necessary to understand better and mitigate the impacts of ocean warming.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Enhanced International Collaboration: India could collaborate with other countries bordering the Indian Ocean to share resources, data, and strategies. This would improve the understanding of the Indian Ocean’s local and regional impacts and enhance the effectiveness of response strategies.
• Investment in Research and Data Collection: It is crucial to increase investment in oceanographic research and data collection, specifically in the Indian Ocean. This includes deploying more ocean monitoring systems to gather data on temperature changes, salinity levels, and ocean currents, less studied than other major oceans like the Pacific.
• Implementation of Advanced Forecasting Technologies: Developing and implementing advanced weather and climate forecasting technologies can help predict severe weather events more accurately. This would allow for better preparedness and timely responses to mitigate the impact of cyclones and intense rainfall events.
• Strengthening Coastal Infrastructure: Strengthening infrastructure along the coastlines to withstand severe weather events is essential. This includes building cyclone-resistant structures, improving drainage systems to handle heavy rainfall, and enhancing flood defenses.
• Promoting Sustainable Practices: Encouraging and implementing sustainable environmental practices can help mitigate some of the root causes of climate change. This includes reducing reliance on fossil fuels, promoting renewable energy sources, and implementing stricter regulations on emissions that contribute to ocean warming.

THE CONCLUSION:

The warming of the Indian Ocean poses severe threats to marine life and the Indian subcontinent’s climate patterns. To address these challenges, India should collaborate with other Indian Ocean-bordering countries to enhance data collection and projections. This collaborative effort is crucial for developing strategies to protect infrastructure and populations from the adverse effects of ocean warming, especially given the slow response of seas to changes in external inputs and the current inadequacy of global commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTION:

Q.1 How do ocean currents and water masses differ in their impacts on marine life and the coastal environment? Give suitable examples. 2019

Q.2 Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do they influence regional climates, fishing, and navigation? 2015

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q.1 Discuss the implications of increasing marine heatwaves in the Indian Ocean on India’s regional climate and socio-economic conditions. Evaluate the measures needed to mitigate the adverse effects of these changes, considering the current global commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

SOURCE:

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/sea-also-rises-on-understanding-the-indian-oceans-local-impact/article68125636.ece

THE CONTEXT: A year after experiencing severe ethnic violence, Manipur remains unstable despite claims of peace by Chief Minister Biren Singh. The ongoing clashes between the Meiteis and Kuki-Zomis communities continue to result in casualties and highlight the deep scars and distrust among the residents. The state government has been criticized for not initiating meaningful dialogue to address the tensions.

ISSUES:

• Ethnic Tensions and Violence: The persistent ethnic clashes between the Meitei and Kuki-Zomi communities continue to result in the loss of lives despite claims of peace returning to the region.
• Government Inaction and Political Failures: The state government is heavily criticized for lacking initiative in fostering meaningful dialogue between conflicting communities. It is also accused of exacerbating tensions through identity politics and failing to address the root causes of the conflict.
• Impact on Security Forces: The recurring attacks on security forces underscore the volatility of the situation and the inadequacy of using force alone to resolve deep-seated issues.
• Economic Neglect: The economic development and measures to improve livelihoods have been neglected. Manipur has one of India’s lowest per capita incomes, and financial issues have taken a backseat amidst the ongoing conflict.
• Influence of External Factors: The presence of illegal migrants from Myanmar, who share ethnicity with the Kuki-Zomis, is mentioned as a complicating factor, yet the government is criticized for using this issue to deflect from its failures.
• Need for Comprehensive Solutions: Combining economic, political, and administrative measures is essential to heal the divisions and bring lasting peace to the region. The government’s current approach, which focuses on security measures like cracking down on drug smuggling, is seen as insufficient.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Establishing an Inclusive and Effective Dialogue Platform: A new, genuinely inclusive dialogue platform should be established, involving all stakeholders, including representatives from the Meitei, Kuki-Zomi, and other communities, as well as civil society groups and religious leaders. This platform should aim to address grievances, mediate disputes, and foster mutual understanding and reconciliation. As noted, the failure of previous committees suggests the need for a more robust mechanism with clear objectives and the power to enforce agreements.
• Economic Development and Job Creation: Economic disenfranchisement plays a significant role in fueling discontent. Initiatives to boost local economies and create job opportunities, especially in the tribal-dominated hill areas, are crucial. This could include agricultural investment, a mainstay for the tribal populations, and infrastructure development to improve market access. Additionally, vocational training programs tailored to local needs can help youth gain employment, reducing the allure of joining insurgent groups or participating in violence.
• Enhanced Security Measures and Reform: While force alone cannot resolve the conflict, security is a legitimate concern that needs addressing. Reforming the local police force to ensure it is unbiased and representative of the community’s diversity can help build trust. Additionally, deploying mixed units of security forces that include members from different communities could help reduce perceptions of bias. It’s also vital to ensure that security measures do not infringe on human rights, which can exacerbate tensions.
• Addressing Land and Identity Issues: Land disputes and identity politics are at the heart of the conflict. A transparent and fair mechanism for addressing land disputes should be established, possibly under the auspices of a national tribunal. This mechanism should respect traditional land rights while ensuring that development does not disproportionately affect one community. Additionally, efforts are needed to reduce the insider-outsider rhetoric and promote a more inclusive identity for all residents of Manipur.
• Strengthening Governance and Rule of Law: The government must commit to upholding the rule of law and improving governance. This includes taking decisive action against corruption, undermining trust in authorities, and ensuring all citizens have equal access to services and justice. Strengthening institutions to make them more transparent and accountable is crucial. This also involves monitoring and potentially revising policies that may be seen as discriminatory or disproportionately affect certain groups.

THE CONCLUSION:

The Manipur government’s efforts have been criticized for not adequately addressing the root causes of the conflict, including economic disparities and identity politics. Despite a crackdown on drug smuggling, the administration’s approach has been seen as insufficient, overlooking the need for comprehensive economic, political, and administrative solutions to heal the state’s deep-seated divisions.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTIONS:

Q.1 The northeastern region of India has been infested with insurgency for a very long time. Analyze the primary reasons for the survival of armed insurgency in this region. 2017

Q.2 The cross-border movement of insurgents is only one of the several security challenges facing the policing of the border in North-East India. Examine the various challenges currently emanating across the India-Myanmar border. Also, discuss the steps to counter the challenges. 2019

Q.3 How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management, particularly given the long porous borders with most South Asian countries and Myanmar? 2013

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q.1 Analyze the socio-political consequences of ethnic conflicts in Northeast India with a particular focus on the recent violence in Manipur. Discuss the role of the state government and central interventions in addressing such conflicts. Suggest measures that could be taken to prevent such incidents in the future.

SOURCE:

https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/surya-tilak-at-ram-temple-and-the-state-of-science-9302313/

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: The fourth meeting of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4), convened under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) in Ottawa, Canada, aimed to advance discussions on a crucial treaty addressing plastic pollution.

EXPLANATION:

• However, despite initial optimism, the progress made during INC-4 was marred by significant challenges and shortcomings.
• The zero draft, expanded during the third meeting (INC-3) to incorporate diverse Member State perspectives, served as the basis for negotiations at INC-4.
• The meeting commenced with subgroups focusing on textual revisions, though substantive discussions only gained momentum in the final days.

Issues in Textual Negotiations

• Textual negotiations entail refining the wording of MEAs through collaborative dialogue among participating parties.
• Amendments, additions, or deletions are proposed based on countries’ concerns, interests, or objectives.
• The process aims to reconcile differing viewpoints to achieve a coherent and effective agreement.
• Textual negotiations, pivotal in shaping multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), encountered hurdles during INC-4.
• Some Member States adopted a non-collaborative stance, advocating for the omission of specific text while simultaneously proposing amendments aimed at diluting provisions.
• This obstructionism extended to both upstream measures, such as primary plastic polymers and chemicals of concern, and downstream measures like extended producer responsibility (EPR).
• Contact Group 1, tasked with deliberating on substantive provisions, faced challenges in advancing textual negotiations for critical elements like definitions, exemptions, and plastic waste management.
• Similarly, Contact Group 2 encountered obstacles, impeding progress on several provisions.

Textual negotiations could not be started for all of the following provisions:

Closing Plenary Disappointment

• The Closing Plenary highlighted disappointment and domination by like-minded groups.
• The Chair’s proposal for intersessional work, initially weak, was further diluted, resulting in an agreement lacking a clear objective.
• The final proposal, endorsed by all Member States, involved the formation of a special expert group to analyze criteria for plastic products, chemicals of concern, and recyclability.
• Brazil also proposed a similar expert group focusing on financing mechanisms.

Concerns and Reluctance

• INC-4’s failure to address pressing issues such as plastic reduction targets and procedural challenges raises concerns about the Chair’s leadership and the committee’s commitment to meeting the 2024 deadline.
• The reluctance to engage in substantive discussions and the exclusion of textual negotiations during intersessional work indicate a potential delay in finalizing the treaty text.

Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Plastic Pollution:

• In March 2022, at the resumed fifth session of the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA-5.2), a historic resolution was adopted to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment.
• The resolution (5/14) requested the Executive Director of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) to convene an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to develop “the instrument,”.
• It is to be based on a comprehensive approach that addresses the full life cycle of plastic, including its production, design, and disposal.
• The INC began its work during the second half of 2022, with the ambition to complete the negotiations by the end of 2024.
• The first session of the INC (INC-1) took place in Punta del Este, Uruguay from 28 November to 2 December 2022, followed by a second session (INC-2) from 29 May to 2 June 2023 in Paris, France, and a third session (INC-3) from 13 to 19 November 2023 in Nairobi, Kenya.
• The fourth session (INC-4) is scheduled for 23 to 29 April 2024 in Ottawa, Canada, and the fifth session (INC-5) on 25 November to 1 December 2024 in Busan, Republic of Korea.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP):

• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system.
• It was established after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972.
• Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.
• It sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for global environment protection.

United Nations Environment Assembly:

• The United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) is the governing body of the UN Environment Programme.
• It is the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment.
• It meets biennially to set priorities for global environmental policies and develop international environmental law.
• It was created in June 2012, during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, also referred to as RIO+20.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/cse-dte-at-ottawa-poor-progress-at-inc-4-as-it-fails-to-address-the-elephant-in-the-room-95891

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Recent intensive modeling studies have challenged conventional wisdom regarding methane emissions, suggesting that microbes, rather than fossil fuels, have been the primary contributors to the increase in atmospheric methane concentrations in recent years.

EXPLANATION:

• This shift in understanding has significant implications for climate policy and underscores the need for accurate data and modeling approaches to address methane emissions effectively.
• A team at the Research Institute for Global Change in Japan have been conducting extensive simulations to understand the dynamics of methane emissions over the past 50 years.
• Their research aims to identify the sources of methane in the atmosphere and analyze how these sources have evolved over time.
• The team’s findings have highlighted a significant increase in methane concentrations, with microbial sources emerging as the primary contributors in recent decades.

Methane: A Potent Greenhouse Gas

• Methane is the second most abundant anthropogenic greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide, with a much higher warming potential over shorter periods.
• While methane emissions from fossil fuel extraction and burning have long been recognized as significant contributors to atmospheric methane, recent research suggests that microbial sources, particularly methanogens, play a crucial role in methane production.
• Methane emissions can be broadly categorized into biogenic and thermogenic sources.
  • Biogenic methane originates from microbial action, particularly from methanogens thriving in oxygen-deficient environments such as wetlands, rice paddies, and animal digestive tracts.
  • In contrast, thermogenic methane is released during the extraction and processing of fossil fuels.
• To differentiate between biogenic and thermogenic methane sources, researchers track the isotopic composition of methane molecules.
• Methane from biological sources tends to have fewer carbon-13 atoms, while methane from thermogenic sources contains more carbon-13.
• By analyzing methane isotopes, researchers can discern the relative contributions of biogenic and thermogenic methane to atmospheric concentrations.

Supercomputer Simulations

• The team utilized supercomputer simulations to analyze methane isotopes collected from monitoring sites worldwide since the 1990s.
• By reconstructing atmospheric conditions from 1980 to 2020, they sought to identify trends in methane emissions and assess the relative contributions of biogenic and thermogenic sources.

Discrepancies in Emissions Inventories

• The team’s findings diverged from existing emissions inventories, such as EDGAR and GAINS, which reported conflicting trends in methane emissions from fossil fuel sources.
• While these inventories indicated an increase in fossil fuel-related methane emissions, the researchers’ models suggested a decline since the 2000s, with microbial sources becoming increasingly dominant.

Implications for Climate Policy

• The study highlights the importance of accurate data and modeling approaches in understanding methane emissions and formulating effective climate policies.
• While efforts to reduce methane emissions from anthropogenic sources remain crucial, the prominence of microbial methane production underscores the need for targeted interventions in agriculture, waste management, and other biogenic methane sources.

EDGAR and GAINS:

• EDGAR and GAINS are both significant databases related to emissions and environmental research.
• EDGAR, which stands for Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, is a comprehensive global database that provides independent estimates of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollution.
• It offers emission estimates at national and global levels, with detailed sectorial resolution and long time series, following IPCC guidelines.
• EDGAR is a valuable resource cited in reports like the Emissions Gap Report and the EU Climate Action Progress Report, contributing to the understanding of global emissions and supporting initiatives like the Paris Agreement.
• On the other hand, GAINS refers to the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies
• GAINS provides estimates and data on emissions, particularly focusing on greenhouse gases and air pollutants.
• It is used for modeling and analysis, offering insights into emission sources, activity data, emission factors, and emission disaggregation in space and time.
• GAINS is utilized by researchers and policymakers to understand emission trends, evaluate abatement technologies, and inform strategies for reducing emissions and improving air quality.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/study-says-microbes-not-fossil-fuels-produced-most-new-methane/article68124627.ece#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20models%20said,more%20methane%20than%20fossil%20fuels

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: A recent study by an international team of scientists underscores the significance of conserving red colobus monkeys in safeguarding Africa’s tropical forests and biodiversity.

EXPLANATION:

• The red colobus monkeys, a rare and imperiled group of primates spread across Africa, play a crucial role as primary indicators of biodiversity decline in the continent’s tropical forests.

Key Findings and Recommendations

• The study highlights several key findings and recommendations:
  • Indicator of Biodiversity Decline: Declining populations of red colobus monkeys serve as a warning sign for the fate of other large-bodied terrestrial vertebrates in African tropical forests. Without intervention, the future of Africa’s biodiversity appears bleak.
  • Importance of Conservation Efforts: Investing in the conservation of red colobus species is deemed crucial for protecting Africa’s tropical forests, mitigating the impacts of climate change, and enhancing food security and public health.
  • Potential Positive Impacts: Conservation efforts targeting red colobus monkeys could have cascading net positive impacts on African tropical forest health amidst a growing biodiversity crisis.
  • Legal Protections and Conservation Priority: The study advocates for providing legal protections to all red colobus species and designating them as priority conservation species in national laws and international treaties.
  • Protected Areas Management: Greater investment in the creation and management of protected areas specifically for red colobus monkeys is recommended to ensure their habitat preservation.
  • Community Engagement: Supporting and engaging with local communities living in close proximity to red colobus habitats is essential for conservation success. Community involvement can foster stewardship and sustainable management of natural resources.
  • Population Surveys: Conducting surveys to estimate the exact populations of red colobus monkeys is essential for informed conservation planning and management.
  • Awareness and Education: Creating awareness about the conservation value of red colobus monkeys among stakeholders, including communities, policymakers, and the general public, is crucial for garnering support and mobilizing resources for conservation initiatives.

Red Colobus Monkeys

• Red colobus monkeys are one of two major simian groups globally, primarily known for their leaf-eating habits.
• Unlike cercopithecines, which are omnivores, colobines rely predominantly on plant materials for sustenance.
• Across Africa, there are 17 species of red colobus monkeys, ranging from Senegal in the west to the Zanzibar Archipelago in the east.
• Despite their ecological significance, red colobus monkeys face numerous threats, including habitat loss, fragmentation, and hunting pressure.
• All 18 taxa of red colobus monkeys are threatened with extinction, with 14 of them listed as Endangered or Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
• Urgent action is needed to address these threats and conserve red colobus populations before they disappear from African forests.

                                                                                                                              Red colobus monkeys

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/africa/red-colobus-conserving-these-old-world-primates-could-help-save-africa-s-tropical-forests-says-study-95900

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: In a recent development, the Indian government has decided to reduce the windfall tax on domestically produced crude oil.

EXPLANATION:

• This tax, which is levied as the Special Additional Excise Duty (SAED), has been decreased from Rs 9,600 per tonne to Rs 8,400 per tonne, effective from May 1.
  • Special Additional Excise Duty (SAED) is a tax imposed on exports of certain products like petrol, diesel, and aviation turbine fuel (ATF) to regulate their import and export, increase domestic supply, and address the impact of rising international prices.
• This adjustment comes as a response to fluctuations in global oil prices and aims to strike a balance between government revenue and industry profitability.
• India initially introduced windfall profit taxes on July 1, 2022, aligning itself with other nations that impose similar taxes on energy companies.
• The rationale behind this tax is to capture supernormal profits earned by companies in the energy sector, particularly when oil prices surge unexpectedly.
• By imposing a windfall tax, the government seeks to ensure that a portion of these excess profits is channeled back into public coffers, thereby mitigating any adverse effects on consumers and the broader economy.

Rationale for Tax Reduction

• The decision to reduce the windfall tax on crude petroleum reflects a nuanced understanding of market dynamics and the need for policy flexibility.
• The government’s move is likely driven by several factors:
  • Global Oil Price Trends:
    • The adjustment in the windfall tax rate is closely tied to fluctuations in global oil prices.
    • By monitoring average oil prices over the previous two weeks, authorities can make informed decisions regarding tax rates.
    • In this case, the reduction in the windfall tax rate may be attributed to a moderation in oil prices, which could alleviate cost pressures on domestic producers and consumers.
  • Industry Competitiveness:
    • Lowering the windfall tax rate can enhance the competitiveness of India’s domestic oil producers, particularly in the context of a highly competitive global market.
    • By reducing the tax burden on crude petroleum, the government aims to support domestic producers and incentivize investment in exploration and production activities.
    • This, in turn, could contribute to energy security and reduce reliance on imported oil.
  • Balancing Revenue and Growth Objectives:
    • While the government seeks to maximize revenue through taxation, it also recognizes the importance of fostering sustainable economic growth.
    • By adjusting tax rates in response to changing market conditions, policymakers aim to strike a delicate balance between revenue generation and industry development.
    • In this case, the decision to lower the windfall tax rate reflects a pragmatic approach to taxation, wherein the government seeks to support economic recovery while ensuring fiscal stability.

Impact on Energy Sector and Economy

• The reduction in the windfall tax on crude petroleum is expected to have several implications for the energy sector and the broader economy:
  • Cost Relief for Producers:
    • Domestic oil producers stand to benefit from the lower tax burden, as it reduces their production costs and improves profit margins.
    • This could incentivize investment in exploration and production activities, thereby bolstering domestic oil production and reducing import dependence.
  • Consumer Affordability:
    • Lowering the windfall tax rate could potentially translate into lower prices for petroleum products, including diesel, petrol, and jet fuel.
    • This, in turn, could alleviate cost pressures on consumers and businesses, thereby supporting consumption and economic activity.
  • Fiscal Impact:
    • While the reduction in the windfall tax rate may lead to a short-term reduction in government revenue, it is expected to be offset by broader economic benefits, including increased investment, consumption, and employment.
    • Moreover, the government retains the flexibility to adjust tax rates in response to evolving market conditions, thereby ensuring fiscal sustainability in the long run.

What Is a Windfall Tax?

• A windfall tax is a tax levied by governments against certain industries when economic conditions allow those industries to experience significantly above-average profits.
• Windfall taxes are primarily levied on companies in the targeted industry that have benefited the most from the economic windfall, most often commodity-based businesses.
• The purpose is to redistribute excess profits in one area to raise funds for the greater social good; however, this can be a contentious ideal.
• Some individual taxes—such as inheritance tax or taxes on lottery or game-show winnings—can also be construed as a windfall tax.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/business/commodities/govt-cuts-windfall-tax-on-crude-petroleum-diesel-atf-9300452/

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: Looking at the current trends of climate change, Aedes will spread into large parts of southern Europe and the United States, putting another 2bn people at risk of getting dengue.

EXPLANATION:

• Dengue fever, transmitted primarily by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, poses a growing threat to global health as its incidence continues to rise.
• The incidence of dengue fever has seen a dramatic increase in recent years, with the number of cases surpassing 5.9 million in 2024.
• This rise is attributed to various factors, including urbanization, climate change, and the expansion of the Aedes mosquito’s range.

Impacts of Dengue

• Dengue fever inflicts significant suffering on individuals and communities, characterized by severe joint pain, hemorrhage, and in some cases, death.
• Furthermore, the after-effects of the disease, such as fatigue and cognitive impairment, contribute to its burden on public health systems.
• The economic consequences are also notable, with affected countries experiencing decreased productivity and increased healthcare costs.

Factors Contributing to Dengue Spread

• Urbanization plays a significant role in the spread of dengue, as densely populated cities provide ample breeding grounds for Aedes mosquitoes.
• Additionally, climate change exacerbates the problem by expanding the mosquito’s habitat into previously unaffected regions.
• The disease’s emergence in new areas, including California, southern Europe, and subtropical Africa, underscores its global threat.

Challenges in Combatting Dengue

• Combatting dengue poses several challenges, particularly in resource-constrained regions.
• Traditional methods, such as bed nets used for malaria prevention, are ineffective against Aedes mosquitoes, which bite during the day.
• Furthermore, the vast territories and limited resources in some countries hinder efforts to control mosquito breeding grounds effectively.

Innovative Solutions

• Singapore’s approach to dengue prevention serves as a model for innovative solutions.
• By releasing mosquitoes infected with wolbachia bacteria, which prevents the transmission of dengue virus, Singapore has achieved significant reductions in dengue incidents.
• This approach, coupled with the development of new vaccines, offers a promising alternative to traditional control methods.

Way Forward

• As dengue continues to spread, it is essential to adopt a multifaceted approach to combat the disease effectively.
• Investment in innovative technologies, such as wolbachia-infected mosquitoes, alongside traditional mosquito control measures, is crucial.
• Additionally, international collaboration and knowledge-sharing can facilitate the implementation of successful strategies in regions heavily impacted by dengue.

Dengue:

• Dengue fever is a viral infection transmitted by mosquitoes, particularly the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus species.
• It is a significant global health concern, affecting millions of people each year, with up to 400 million infections annually.
• Dengue can lead to severe illness and even death, with approximately 100 million people falling sick from the infection and around 40,000 deaths attributed to severe dengue.
• The disease is characterized by symptoms such as high fever, severe headache, muscle and joint pain, and in severe cases, symptoms like bleeding gums, fast breathing, and extreme fatigue.
• There is no specific treatment for dengue, and management focuses on alleviating symptoms, with severe cases requiring hospitalization.
• Prevention strategies include mosquito control measures and avoiding mosquito bites through protective clothing, insect repellent, and mosquito nets.
• Dengue is a mosquito-borne disease that poses a significant public health challenge globally, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.

Aedes aegypti mosquito:

• The Aedes aegypti mosquito is a species of mosquito that is known for its ability to transmit various diseases, including dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, and yellow fever.
• It is a small, dark mosquito with white lyre-shaped markings on its legs and a preference for biting indoors, primarily targeting humans.
• The female Aedes aegypti mosquito lays eggs in containers with water and plants near the home, which can survive for long periods of time without water, allowing them to be easily spread to new locations.
• The eggs are resistant to desiccation and can survive for six months or more.
• The larvae feed on small aquatic organisms, algae, and particles of plant and animal material in water-filled containers.
• The entire immature cycle can occur in as little as 7-8 days, and the life span for adult mosquitoes is around three weeks.

SOURCE: https://www.livemint.com/science/health/a-mosquito-borne-disease-is-spreading-as-the-planet-warms-11714354732023.html

THE CONTEXT: The chairman of the University Grants Commission (UGC) advocates for increased autonomy for colleges in India to enhance the quality of higher education. He argues that universities should be less controlling over autonomous colleges, citing the UGC’s practice of granting universities considerable freedom. Despite the theoretical benefits of autonomy, evidence from the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) does not strongly support the superiority of autonomous colleges in practice.

ISSUES:

• Need for Greater Autonomy: Universities must grant more autonomy to colleges. This autonomy is essential for improving the quality of higher education by allowing colleges to make independent decisions regarding curriculum design and academic innovations.
• Evidence of Autonomy’s Impact: Despite the push for autonomy, the evidence of its effectiveness is mixed. It mentions that only five out of the top ten colleges in the NIRF rankings are autonomous, suggesting that autonomy alone may not guarantee superior academic performance.
• Bureaucratic Challenges in Universities: The current state of Indian universities is bureaucratic and unresponsive. It argues that universities have become detached from their primary mission of knowledge dissemination and are not effectively supporting the colleges under their jurisdiction.
• Potential Benefits of Autonomy: Autonomy could allow colleges to tailor their educational offerings more closely to the needs of their students and the demands of the modern world. This includes flexibility in curriculum design and the ability to focus more on assessing and enhancing student learning.
• Quality Assurance in Autonomous Colleges: An independent review of autonomous colleges’ performance is needed to ensure that the quality of education does not suffer as more colleges gain autonomy. The UGC is urged to develop methods to maintain high standards as autonomy becomes more widespread.
• Immediate Reforms Suggested: The UGC could implement reforms to help colleges reach global standards. These include reducing the teaching load on faculty, allowing them more time for research and student interaction, and instituting student course evaluations to ensure high-quality teaching.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Independent Review and Quality Assurance Mechanisms: Before processing further applications for autonomy, the UGC should conduct an independent review of the performance of existing autonomous colleges. This review should assess the quality of teaching, curriculum relevance, and student outcomes. Based on this review, the UGC can develop a set of quality assurance mechanisms that autonomous colleges must adhere to. This could include periodic accreditation by independent bodies, like the system used by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) in the United States.
• Faculty Development and Reduced Teaching Loads: The UGC should revise the norms on teaching loads to align with global standards, allowing faculty members more time for research, self-improvement, and student engagement. This approach is in line with practices at leading universities worldwide, where faculty are encouraged to engage in research and professional development activities. Additionally, implementing comprehensive faculty development programs can enhance teaching skills and update faculty on the latest developments in their fields.
• Student-Centered Learning and Course Evaluations: Encourage autonomous colleges to adopt student-centered learning approaches, where students actively participate in their learning process. This can be facilitated by incorporating project-based learning, flipped classrooms, and online resources. Furthermore, instituting course evaluations by students, as practiced in universities globally, can provide valuable feedback for continuous improvement in teaching and learning.
• Curriculum Innovation and Industry Collaboration: Autonomous colleges should be encouraged to innovate curricula with industry and international academic partners. This can ensure that the curriculum remains relevant to the evolving needs of the job market and incorporates global best practices. Examples include dual degree programs, internships, and guest lectures from industry professionals.
• Financial and Administrative Autonomy: Colleges also need financial and administrative autonomy to benefit from academic independence. This would allow them to invest strategically in infrastructure, technology, and human resources. The UGC can facilitate this by providing guidelines and support for colleges to diversify their funding sources, including alumni donations, research grants, and public-private partnerships, like the endowment model used by many leading universities in the United States.

THE CONCLUSION:

The UGC should review the performance of existing autonomous colleges before approving new applications for autonomy to ensure quality standards are met. Immediate reforms suggested reducing lecture hours to align with global standards and implementing student evaluations of courses to improve faculty performance. Emphasizing the need for Indian higher education institutions to meet international standards, suggesting that autonomy alone is insufficient without significant structural changes and quality assurance measures.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTION:

Q. The quality of higher education in India requires significant improvements to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of higher and technical education in the country? Discuss. 2015

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q. Discuss the implications of granting autonomy to colleges in India to enhance the quality of higher education. Discuss the challenges and potential reforms needed to ensure that independence leads to global standards in education.

SOURCE:

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-ugc-must-nudge-universities-to-excel/article68126128.ece

THE CONTEXT: India’s taxation issues focus on the low tax-to-GDP ratio and the regressive nature of the Goods and Services Tax (GST). The piece highlights the need for a broader income tax base and a more progressive tax system to address rising inequality and insufficient social spending. It also explores the potential of a wealth tax as a solution to these problems, referencing global examples and the opinions of wealthy individuals on higher taxation.

ISSUES:

• Low Tax-to-GDP Ratio: India has a low tax-to-GDP ratio, not due to high tax rates but to a narrow tax base. A broader income tax net is needed, as a significant exemption threshold currently leads to a small proportion of the population being subject to income tax.
• Regressive Nature of GST: The Goods and Services Tax (GST) is criticized for being regressive, disproportionately affecting the lower half of the income distribution. The rate of GST should be lowered to reduce the indirect tax burden on the poorer sections of society.
• Rising Inequality: Despite a reduction in poverty, income and wealth inequality in India are at their highest, posing a threat to social stability. Policies that address poverty and the widening gap between the rich and the poor are needed.
• Need for Social Spending: Increasing government spending on primary education and healthcare is called for to combat inequality and improve social welfare. However, a decline in the allocation of government budgets to these essential services underscores the need for enhanced tax collection.
• Wealth Tax as a Solution: A wealth tax could address inequality by taxing the wealth of the wealthiest individuals. However, it points out the challenges in assessing and taxing wealth, especially in assets like real estate, and suggests focusing on financial assets as a more feasible approach.
• Global Perspective on Wealth Tax: Referring to international examples of wealth taxes, it is argued that India, despite being a developing country, can implement such a tax, given its significant number of wealthy individuals.
• Public Support from the Wealthy: Some wealthy individuals have expressed support for higher taxes on the rich, recognizing the social responsibility to contribute more to society and prevent exacerbating inequality.
• Potential Benefits of Wealth Tax: A small wealth tax on financial assets above a certain threshold is proposed to generate significant revenue for social spending without deterring wealth or employment creation.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Implementing a Wealth Tax on Financial Assets: Given the complexity of assessing wealth, especially in real estate and gold, India could initially focus on taxing disclosed financial holdings above a certain threshold, such as Rs 100 crore. A modest rate, such as 0.1%, could be a starting point. This approach would target the ultra-wealthy without discouraging investment or causing capital flight. The success of this measure would rely on India’s digital infrastructure and financial data accuracy, which has improved significantly due to digitization.
• Enhancing Transparency and Compliance: India must enhance transparency and compliance mechanisms to address tax evasion and ensure the effectiveness of a wealth tax. This could involve leveraging technology to track financial transactions and assets more accurately and international cooperation to trace assets held abroad. Strengthening the legal framework to penalize tax evasion aggressively is also crucial.
• Addressing Inequality through Comprehensive Tax Reform: A wealth tax should be part of a broader effort to make the tax system more progressive and equitable. This includes revising income tax slabs and rates to ensure they align more with the economic realities of different income groups. Reducing the GST rate on essential goods and services could also help alleviate the regressive impact of indirect taxes on the poorer sections of society.
• Investing in Social Priorities: The additional revenue generated from a wealth tax should be earmarked for significant investments in primary education, healthcare, and other social priorities. This would help reduce inequality of opportunity and address some of the root causes of economic disparity in India.
• Engaging with the Wealthy: The government should dialogue with the wealthy to build consensus around the need for a wealth tax. Many wealthy individuals globally have supported higher taxes on the rich to address societal issues. By involving them in the conversation, India can work towards a wealth tax policy that is considered fair and necessary for the greater good.
• International Examples of Wealth Tax: Countries like Spain, Norway, Switzerland, and France have implemented various forms of wealth tax, demonstrating that it is feasible to tax wealth effectively. These countries have highly evolved financial systems that make tax evasion difficult, thus ensuring a fairer distribution of wealth. For instance, Norway’s wealth tax is applied to an individual’s total net worth, including real estate, bank deposits, and shares, with specific exemptions and thresholds to protect lower and middle-income groups. On the other hand, France recently shifted from a broader wealth tax to a tax specifically on real estate wealth, aiming to encourage economic investment.

THE CONCLUSION:

India should consider implementing a wealth tax on financial assets above a certain threshold to address its taxation and inequality issues. The piece suggests that such a tax, even at a low rate, could significantly contribute to social spending without deterring wealth or investment. It emphasizes the importance of addressing income and wealth inequality to maintain social stability and uphold the principles of democracy.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTION:

Q. Explain intra-generational and inter-generational equity issues from inclusive growth and sustainable development perspectives. 2020

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q. Discuss the potential benefits and challenges of implementing a wealth tax in India as a measure to address rising inequality and under-taxation while considering global practices and the Indian economic context.

SOURCE:

https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/towards-a-workable-wealth-tax-3000333

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: Recent reports indicate that India is poised to become one of the top contributors to microplastic pollution in waterbodies, following China.

EXPLANATION:

• A new report predicts that by the end of 2024, a staggering 3,153,813 tonnes of microplastics will be released into the world’s waterways, with India accounting for a significant portion of this pollution.
• Microplastics not only pollute the environment but also carry chemical additives that accumulate in waterbodies, posing serious health risks.
• These additives, including heavy metals, flame retardants, and substances like bisphenol A, are known to cause neurotoxicity, inflammation, metabolic disorders, and cancer.
• The concentration of these additives in waterways further exacerbates the toxicity levels, impacting aquatic life and potentially human h

India’s Contribution to Microplastics and Chemical Additives:

• India’s escalating contribution to microplastic pollution is underscored by the release of 391,879 tonnes of microplastics, making it the second-largest polluter after China.
• Additionally, India is projected to release 31,483 tonnes of chemical additives from microplastics into waterbodies, further exacerbating environmental degradation and health risks.

Policy Responses and Initiatives:

• In response to the growing concern over microplastic pollution, India has initiated efforts to address the issue at both national and international levels.
• Ban on Single-Use Plastics: India has imposed bans on certain single-use plastic items like plates, cups, and polystyrene (Thermocol) to reduce plastic waste and microplastic pollution. Despite these bans, enforcement challenges persist, leading to the continued presence of banned items in the market. The Plastic Waste Management Rule was also amended to regulate the thickness of plastic carry bags, aiming to reduce their breakdown into microplastics.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): India has adopted an EPR approach, where producers are held responsible for managing the waste generated by their products. This strategy incentivizes waste prevention, promotes eco-friendly product design, and supports recycling and materials management goals. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has played a crucial role in formulating and implementing these initiatives.
• Un-Plastic Collective (UPC): The Un-Plastic Collective, a voluntary initiative launched by UNEP-India, Confederation of Indian Industry, and WWF-India, aims to minimize the negative impacts of plastics on the environment and society. This collective seeks to address the ecological and social health implications of plastic pollution.
• At the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4), India emphasized the importance of scientific and technical innovation to prevent plastic release into waterways.
• Furthermore, India advocated for the inclusion of extended producer responsibility (EPR) mechanisms in domestic waste management programs to tackle plastic pollution at its source.

Micro-plastics:

• Micro-plastics are very small (generally less than 5 millimeters in size) plastic particles that can originate from a variety of sources, such as ingredients in cigarette filters, textile fibers and cleaning or personal care products, and dust from car and truck tires, as well as from larger plastic products broken down by the effects of the sun, wind and ocean waves.
• There are two types of micro-plastics: “primary” and “secondary” micro-plastics.
  • Primary micro-plastics are manufactured to be tiny in order to serve a specific function for example, as an abrasive in a consumer product.
  • Secondary micro-plastics come from the breakdown of larger plastic items.

Challenges and Recommendations:

• Despite these efforts, challenges persist in effectively managing plastic waste and curbing microplastic pollution.
• The rise in plastic production and inadequate waste management capacity continue to outpace improvements in recycling and waste management.
• Therefore, the assumption that recycling alone can mitigate the plastics crisis is flawed, necessitating a comprehensive approach that includes reducing plastic production, enhancing waste management infrastructure, and implementing stricter regulations on plastic usage and disposal.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/in-2024-india-to-be-among-top-4-contributors-of-microplastics-released-into-waterbodies-95883

TAG: GS 3: ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTEXT: April in India has been marked by an unprecedented surge in temperatures, leading to widespread heatwave conditions across various regions of the country.

EXPLANATION:

• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recorded significant heatwave occurrences, particularly in southern peninsular and southeastern coastal areas.

Areas Prone to Heatwaves:

• The Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ) spanning central, north, and peninsular India between Gujarat and West Bengal is traditionally susceptible to heatwave conditions.
• States like Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, and Telangana, among others, are recurrently affected by heatwaves during the summer months.
• However, recent observations suggest an expansion of heatwave-affected areas beyond the CHZ, encompassing states like Kerala and Sikkim.

IMD’s Criteria for Declaring Heatwaves:

• The IMD declares a heatwave when the maximum temperature recorded over at least two localities in plains reaches 40 degrees Celsius or exceeds 4.5 degrees Celsius from normal.
• For hilly and coastal regions, the threshold temperatures are 30 degrees Celsius and 37 degrees Celsius, respectively.
• A severe heatwave is declared if the temperature departure exceeds 6 degrees Celsius from normal.
• Two primary factors contribute to the extreme heat witnessed in April.
  • Firstly, the year 2024 began with an El Niño weather pattern, characterized by abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
  • El Niño events typically lead to elevated temperatures, prolonged heatwaves, and reduced pre-monsoon rainfall.
  • Secondly, the persistent presence of anticyclone systems over southern peninsular and southeastern coastal areas exacerbates the heat.
  • These high-pressure systems induce air subsidence, generating additional heat at the Earth’s surface.

Extent of Heatwaves in April:

• Except for a few days, the entirety of April has seen either localized or widespread heatwave conditions across India.
• Regions like Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala have been particularly affected, experiencing prolonged periods of severe heatwaves.
• Notably, the inclusion of states like Kerala and Sikkim in the list of heatwave-affected areas underscores the expanding geographical reach of heatwaves beyond traditional hotspots.

Implications and Future Concerns:

• The intensification and broadening of heatwave occurrences in India raise concerns about the implications of climate change on weather patterns and regional climates.
• The findings align with reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), indicating a shift in heatwave dynamics towards previously unaffected regions.
• Addressing these challenges necessitates proactive measures in climate adaptation, urban planning, and resource management to mitigate the adverse effects of rising temperatures.

Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ):

• The Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ) refers to a region that is particularly vulnerable to severe heatwaves and high temperatures.
• This zone includes areas where heatwaves are more frequent and intense, leading to significant health risks and impacts on communities.
• Regions falling under the Core Heatwave Zone, such as Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, have experienced extreme heat events that have resulted in adverse effects on human health and well-being.
• The Core Heatwave Zone designation helps to highlight areas where proactive measures and interventions are crucial to enhance community resilience and mitigate the impacts of heatwaves.
• Efforts by organizations like SEEDS India focus on making communities in the Core Heatwave Zone more resilient during heatwaves through targeted interventions and strategies aimed at reducing vulnerabilities and enhancing preparedness.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/heatwaves-april-9297681/

TAG: GS 2: POLITY

THE CONTEXT: The recent hearing in the Supreme Court regarding the acquisition and redistribution of private property has brought into focus the complex legal issue surrounding Article 31C of the Indian Constitution.

EXPLANATION:

Article 31C:

• This provision was introduced in 1971 through the Constitution (Twenty-fifth) Amendment Act.
• It aims to protect laws enacted to ensure the equitable distribution of material resources for the common good, as outlined in Article 39(b) and 39(c) of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
  • Article 39(b) and (c)-
    • Clauses (b) and (c) of Article 39 provide:
    • “The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing-
    • (b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good;
    • (c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment.”
• Article 31C was introduced in response to the Supreme Court’s decision in the “Bank Nationalisation Case” (Rustom Cavasjee Cooper vs Union of India, 1970), which challenged the government’s ability to acquire property without adequate compensation.
• In 1976, Parliament enacted The Constitution (Forty-second) Amendment Act, which expanded the protection under Article 31C to “all or any of the principles laid down in Part IV of the Constitution”, under clause 4.
• As a result, every single directive principle (Articles 36-51) was protected from challenges under Articles 14 and 19 of the Constitution.
• • • Articles 14 states that the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India, on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
    • Article 19 guarantees to every Citizen of India the following six basic, fundamental freedoms-

19(a). Freedom of speech and expression.

19(b).Freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms

19(c). Freedom to form associations or unions or co-operative societies

19(d). Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India

19(e). Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India and

19(g). Freedom to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation trade or business

Legal Challenges and Complications:

• The Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) introduced the concept of the “basic structure” of the Constitution, leading to the partial striking down of Article 31C.
• Subsequent amendments, notably the Constitution (Forty-second) Amendment Act in 1976, expanded the scope of Article 31C to protect all Directive Principles from challenges under Articles 14 and 19.
• However, the Minerva Mills v. Union of India case (1980) further complicated matters by striking down parts of the 42nd Amendment, raising questions about the continued validity of Article 31C.

Current SC Proceedings:

• The ongoing case in the Supreme Court revolves around the interpretation of Article 39(b) in relation to private property acquisition laws, particularly Chapter VIII-A of the Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Act, 1976.
• The key question before the court is whether Article 31C remains valid following the Minerva Mills judgment, or if it has been effectively nullified.

Arguments Presented:

• Senior Advocate contends that the original Article 31C was superseded by the 42nd Amendment, implying that its subsequent invalidation in Minerva Mills rendered it defunct.
• Conversely, Solicitor General Tushar Mehta argues for the doctrine of revival, asserting that the pre-amended provisions of Article 31C should be reinstated following the Minerva Mills decision.

Implications and Future Directions:

• The outcome of the Supreme Court’s deliberation on Article 31C will have far-reaching implications for the balance between fundamental rights and Directive Principles, particularly in matters concerning private property rights.
• The court’s decision will shape the legal landscape surrounding socio-economic reforms and the extent of judicial scrutiny over laws aimed at achieving these reforms.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-law/article-31c-supreme-court-fundamental-right-private-property-9297379/

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: The pharmaceutical company AstraZeneca is being sued in a class action over claims that its vaccine against Covid-19, developed with the University of Oxford, caused death and serious injury, including TTS — Thrombosis with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome — which causes people to have blood clots and a low blood platelet count.

EXPLANATION:

• The legal action, involving 51 cases in the High Court, seeks damages estimated to be up to £100 million.
• The first case, initiated by Jamie Scott in 2023, highlights the severity of the situation, with victims and their families seeking justice for the adverse effects experienced after receiving the vaccine.

AstraZeneca’s Admission and Response:

• While AstraZeneca is contesting the claims, it admitted in court documents submitted to the High Court in February that its vaccine can cause TTS in very rare cases.
• This acknowledgment marks a significant development in the legal proceedings, indicating a shift in AstraZeneca’s stance on the vaccine’s potential side effects.
• However, the company maintains its position on the vaccine’s efficacy and denies the allegations of defects and overstatement of efficacy.

Impact on Affected Individuals and Families:

• Victims and their families affected by the adverse effects of the Covishield vaccine express frustration over the delayed acknowledgment by AstraZeneca.
• The need for accountability, fair compensation, and swift resolution of the issue have been emphasized.
• The prolonged legal battle underscores the emotional and financial toll on those affected, who seek closure and restitution for their suffering.

Legal and Ethical Considerations:

• The legal claims against AstraZeneca raise questions about patient safety, accountability, and corporate responsibility in the development and distribution of vaccines.
• The role of regulatory authorities in ensuring stringent standards for vaccine safety is scrutinized, highlighting the complexities of balancing public health interests with individual rights and concerns.

AstraZeneca Covishield:

• The AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, also known as Covishield, is a viral vector vaccine developed by Oxford University and AstraZeneca.
• It is marketed under the brand name Covishield by the Serum Institute of India and has been widely administered in the country.
• The vaccine has been associated with rare cases of unusual blood clots with low blood platelets, particularly in women under the age of 60.
• Despite these rare side effects, regulatory agencies emphasize that the benefits of the AstraZeneca vaccine in preventing COVID-19 and reducing severe illness and death outweigh the risks.
• The vaccine is typically administered in two doses, with the second dose given between 4 and 12 weeks after the first dose, except in specific circumstances where major thrombosis with thrombocytopenia has occurred or for individuals under 40 without underlying health conditions who may be offered an alternative vaccine based on national guidelines.

Thrombosis with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome:

• Thrombosis with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome (TTS) is a rare condition characterized by the formation of blood clots (thrombosis) combined with low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia).
• This syndrome has been associated with the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, particularly in rare cases where individuals develop unusual blood clots with low platelets after vaccination.
• Symptoms of TTS can affect various parts of the body, including the brain, leading to severe and persistent headaches, blurred vision, difficulty speaking, seizures, and confusion.
• Other symptoms may involve difficulty breathing, chest pain, leg swelling, abdominal pain, and tiny blood spots under the skin.
• Treatment for TTS typically includes anticoagulant medications, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), and high-dose steroids.
• Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial due to the potential rapid deterioration of patients with TTS.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/world/astrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-covishield-side-effects-9298024/

TAG: GS 1: GEOGRAPHY

THE CONTEXT: Indonesia’s Ruang volcano, located approximately 100 km from the provincial capital of Manado, erupted once again, unleashing “explosive” flows of incandescent lava into the night sky.

EXPLANATION:

• The eruption, which occurred recently, led to a dramatic increase in volcanic activity, prompting authorities to elevate the alert status to its highest level.
• The eruption of Ruang volcano recently was characterized by the spewing of incandescent lava and rocks into the air, illuminated by flashes of lightning within the crater.
• Footage shared by Indonesia’s disaster mitigation agency captured the intensity of the eruption, with fiery red clouds billowing from the crater and lava raining down on the surrounding area.
• The eruption column reached a height of 2 km, indicating the significant magnitude of the event.
• In response to the eruption, the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation raised the alert status to the highest level, urging residents within a 6-km radius to evacuate immediately.
• The spike in seismic activity, particularly deep volcanic earthquakes, further underscored the urgency of the situation.
• The authorities emphasized the potential for further “explosive eruptions,” necessitating swift evacuation measures to ensure public safety.

Impact on Infrastructure and Communities:

• The eruption forced the closure of Sam Ratulangi airport in Manado due to the potential spread of volcanic ash, disrupting air travel in the region.
• This closure is reminiscent of similar actions taken earlier in the month following previous eruptions.
• Additionally, the eruption caused damage to homes in the vicinity, highlighting the direct impact on local communities.
• Most notably, over 800 residents of the island of Ruang were evacuated in the wake of the recent eruptions, emphasizing the need for ongoing support and relief efforts.

Alert Status and Regional Context:

• Indonesia’s strategic location within the “Pacific Ring of Fire” exposes it to high seismic activity, with multiple tectonic plates converging in the region.
• The escalation of Ruang volcano’s alert status from level 3 to level 4 reflects the evolving nature of volcanic activity and the need for continued monitoring and preparedness.
• This event serves as a reminder of the constant threat posed by volcanic eruptions in Indonesia and the broader implications for regional safety and infrastructure.

Mount Ruang:

SOURCE: https://www.deccanherald.com/world/indonesias-ruang-volcano-erupts-again-alert-status-at-highest-3000702

THE CONTEXT: The importance of statistical thinking in the context of the Supreme Court of India’s decision on the sample size for Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)–based audit of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) cannot be ignored. It emphasizes that truths in science, mathematics, and statistics cannot be established through legislative or judicial fiats, highlighting the need for statistically significant sample sizes in the audit of EVMs to ensure election integrity.

ISSUES:

• Inadequacy of Sample Size: The Supreme Court’s decision on the statistically inadequate sample size for VVPAT-based audits of EVMs is questionable. The prescribed sample size does not conform to the fundamental principles of statistical sampling theory, potentially failing to detect defective EVMs.
• Lack of Transparency: The Election Commission of India (ECI) and the Supreme Court lack clarity and transparency regarding the definition of the ‘population’ of EVMs for sampling and the subsequent steps if a defective EVM is found.
• Risk of EVM Malfunction or Manipulation: Despite claims of no mismatches, EVMs are susceptible to malfunction or manipulation, and the current audit system may not adequately address or reveal these issues due to the small sample size.
• Judicial and Administrative Oversight: The judiciary and administrative bodies are being criticized for not demanding more rigorous statistical methods and transparency in the auditing process of EVMs.
• Misunderstanding of Statistical Principles: Political figures and parties are criticized for demanding arbitrary percentage samples for EVM audits, which reflects a misunderstanding of how statistical accuracy is achieved.
• Need for a Statistically Sound Audit System: A statistically sound VVPAT-based audit system that can detect mismatches with high accuracy is quintessential. Results should be declared based on EVM counts only where there is a perfect match. Otherwise, manual counting of VVPAT slips should be mandated.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Define the Population: Clearly define the ‘population’ of EVMs for each Assembly and Parliamentary Constituency. This clarity is essential for determining the appropriate sample size and subsequent steps in case a defective EVM is detected.
• Determine Statistically Significant Sample Size: Use statistical sampling theory to determine a sample size that can detect defective EVMs with high confidence (99% or 99.9%). This involves calculating the sample size based on the population size, the acceptable risk level (type I and type II errors), and the expected rate of defective EVMs.
• Random Sampling: Ensure that the sample of EVMs for VVPAT verification is selected randomly from the defined population. This randomness is crucial for the integrity and reliability of the audit process.
• Immediate Verification: Conduct the matching exercise between EVM counts and VVPAT slips at the beginning rather than at the end of the counting day. This allows for immediate action in case of discrepancies.
• Action in Case of Mismatch: If a mismatch between the EVM count and the VVPAT count is detected in the sample, manual counting of VVPAT slips should be conducted for all remaining EVMs of the ‘population’. The results should then be declared based on the VVPAT count.
• Transparency and Public Trust: Transparently disclose the methodology used for sampling, the results of the VVPAT verification, and the actions taken in case of mismatches. This transparency is vital for building and maintaining public trust in the electoral process.
• Continuous Review and Improvement: Regularly review and update the sampling methodology and audit process based on technological advancements, electoral landscape changes, and stakeholder feedback. This ensures that the system remains robust and effective in detecting and addressing any issues with EVMs.

THE CONCLUSION:

The Supreme Court’s decision not to demand transparency from the Election Commission of India regarding the definition of ‘population’ for sample size is criticized, and the steps to be taken in case of a mismatch are also criticized. It argues for implementing a statistically sound VVPAT-based EVM audit system that can detect mismatches with high accuracy, advocating for a ‘management by exception’ approach to ensure the integrity of election results.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTION:

Q. In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? 2018

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q. Discuss the significance of adopting a statistically sound VVPAT-based system for EVM audit in ensuring the integrity of electoral processes. Evaluate the implications of the Supreme Court’s verdict on the sample size for the VVPAT audit in the context of the Association for Democratic Reforms vs Election Commission of India and Another (2024). Suggest measures to enhance the reliability of the electoral audit process.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/the-evm-vvpat-case-judgment-is-disappointing/article68122171.ece