THE CONTEXT: India’s water crisis is a pressing issue that demands immediate and innovative solutions. The country’s reliance on outdated agricultural practices, rapid urbanization, and climate change only worsens the situation, exacerbating the scarcity, pollution, and inefficient management of water. However, there are successful examples of water management strategies from both national and international sources that serve as beacons of hope for the future.

THE ISSUES:

• Water Scarcity and Availability: India faces a severe water crisis due to physical water scarcity. The country has only 4% of the world’s freshwater resources but 18% of the global population. Groundwater depletion due to overexploitation, especially for agriculture, has led to drying up of rivers, reservoirs, and other water bodies, particularly during the summer months. Climate change and erratic rainfall patterns have exacerbated the problem.
• Water Quality Degradation: Surface water bodies and groundwater sources are heavily polluted due to the discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents. This has led to a deterioration of water quality in many rivers, lakes, and other water sources.
• Inadequate Water Infrastructure and Management: India lacks proper surface and groundwater management systems. Many water bodies have silted up due to poor maintenance, leading to reduced storage capacity. The water distribution system is inefficient, with high losses. Integrated water resource management is lacking.
• Socioeconomic Impacts: The water crisis disproportionately affects rural and urban poor communities. Women and girls bear the burden of fetching water over long distances. Water scarcity threatens food security, economic development, and the functioning of ecosystems.
• Governance and Policy Challenges: Lack of proper regulation and oversight on groundwater use, subsidies and policies that encourage unsustainable water use, poor coordination between government departments, and lack of community awareness and participation in water management are key governance challenges.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Rainwater Harvesting: Implementing rainwater harvesting systems can significantly enhance water availability. For example, in the state of Tamil Nadu, rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory for all new buildings. This has led to a noticeable improvement in groundwater levels in many areas.
• Efficient Irrigation Techniques: Adopting micro-irrigation systems like drip and sprinkler irrigation can reduce water usage in agriculture. The state of Gujarat has successfully implemented such systems through its Sardar Patel Sahakari Jal Sanchay Yojana, leading to increased water use efficiency among farmers.
• Wastewater Reuse: Treating and reusing wastewater can alleviate pressure on freshwater resources. The city of Nagpur has initiated a project to treat sewage water and supply it for industrial use, reducing the reliance on freshwater sources.
• Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): IWRM approaches involve coordinating the development and management of water, land, and related resources. The Chhattisgarh government has adopted IWRM to manage the Indravati river basin, ensuring equitable distribution of water for various needs.
• Water Conservation Campaigns: Awareness campaigns can play a crucial role in changing public attitudes and behaviors towards water conservation. The Indian government’s Jal Shakti Abhiyan is a campaign for water conservation and water security, with activities like water conservation and rainwater harvesting, renovation of traditional water bodies, reuse of water, and intensive afforestation.
• Groundwater Regulation: Regulating groundwater extraction can prevent overuse. The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) in India issues guidelines and regulations for the sustainable extraction of groundwater.
• Technological Innovations: The use of technology, such as IoT-based automation for irrigation, can optimize water use. In the state of Andhra Pradesh, the government has introduced a digital agriculture initiative that includes IoT devices to help farmers monitor soil moisture and plan irrigation more effectively.

THE CONCLUSION:

India’s future hinges on careful water management. To achieve sustainable and peaceful growth, India must embrace an all-encompassing approach that blends technology, community engagement, and policy reform. Drawing inspiration from global best practices, the country is poised to overcome its water-related challenges and set a precedent for environmental stewardship and socio-economic resilience. The journey towards water security will be critical in shaping India’s future, and with the right approach, the country can pave the way for a prosperous and sustainable tomorrow.

UPSC PAST YEAR QUESTIONS:

Q.1) How and to what extent would micro-irrigation help in solving India’s water crisis? (2021)

Q.2) Suggest measures to improve water storage and irrigation system to make its judicious use under depleting scenario. (2020)

Q.3) What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launches by the Government of India for water conservation and water security? (2020)

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q.1) Considering the multifaceted nature of India’s water crisis, which includes both anthropogenic factors and climate change impacts, critically analyze the effectiveness of current water management strategies.

SOURCE:

https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/water-an-instrument-to-build-world-peace/article67977390.ece

THE CONTEXT: Recently, Baloch separatists armed with guns and bombs attacked Pakistan’s strategic Gwadar port, key to the multi-billion-dollar China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. Pakistan security forces restrained the complex coordinated attack on Gwadar Port Authority Complex in a two-hour-long battle and claimed to have neutralised all eight militants.

WHO ARE THE MAJEED BRIGADE?

• The Majeed Brigade of the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA), claimed responsibility for the attack, stressed that their fighters had targeted Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and Military Intelligence facilities.
• The Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) is the most prominent of the many separatist groups in Pakistan’s restive Balochistan province.
• The Majeed Brigade, which has been active since 2011, is the BLA’s dedicated suicide squad. The unit is named after two brothers, both of whom were called Majeed Langove.
• The Majeed Brigade is well-armed and possesses high-grade weapons, including improvised explosive devices (IED), anti-personnel and anti-tank mines, grenades, rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) and various automatic weapons.
• Although the Majeed Brigade is fast becoming a more lethal arm of the BLA, being a BLA member is not a prerequisite to join the Majeed Brigade. Insurgents from other Baluch separatist organizations who volunteer for suicide terrorism can join the Majeed Brigade.

ISSUES:

• Troubled relations of neighbours with Pakistan: Apart from serious domestic troubles on security, Pakistan does not enjoy good relations with most of its neighbours at the moment. The growing infrastructure for violence in the country does not goes well for the region.
• Baloch insurgency: The Baloch insurgency in Pakistan has been gaining momentum for the past two years and insurgents regularly breach the security of Pakistani military and paramilitary installations across the country. The Gwadar incident is yet another big attack that points to the growing capability of armed Baloch groups.
• Economic Disparities: The Baloch homeland is rich in natural resources, but economic disparities persist. In Iran, a significant portion of the Baloch population lives under the poverty
• Issues faced in Balochistan: Apart from economic deprivation and lack of political freedom, the burning issues in Balochistan have been the forced disappearances of thousands of men and extrajudicial killings of many of those reported missing.
• Importance of Gwadar port: Balochistan and the Gwadar port are immensely important for Pakistan, especially for the army that has taken on the responsibility of making the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and its end port, Gwadar, a success story for China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
• Chinese issues: The Chinese though for now continue holding the hand of the “all-weather ally” with respect to moving forward on CPEC and Gwadar port. However, in the larger scheme of things in the Indian Ocean region, given the grave security imperatives for Pakistan, the Gwadar port may not be able to compete with the Iranian port of Chabahar for business and trade.
• Security Concerns: Escalating tensions may raise security concerns for neighbouring countries, particularly India and Afghanistan. The region is already filled with security challenges, and heightened tensions could worsen the situation.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Counterterrorism Cooperation: Pakistan’s political and economic situation can provide an opportunity for India to engage with the international community in addressing the issue of cross-border terrorism. India can strengthen its case for global cooperation in combating terrorism and isolating state-sponsored terror networks.
• Change in foreign policy: India as a rising power with growing economic and security interests in the region, needs to rethink its traditional neutrality and passive approach in the Middle East and Central Asia.
• Regional Power Projection: The border clashes between Iran and Pakistan must not be allowed to escalate as it will create another war frontier in Asia. Start of war in this region could not only hamper peace, it may further create economic problems for the whole world.
• Strengthening Regional Connectivity: India can capitalize on Pakistan’s current challenges by promoting regional connectivity initiatives, such as the Chabahar port in Iran or the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC). These projects can bolster India’s access to Central Asia, Afghanistan, and beyond, enabling trade diversification and enhancing India’s regional influence.
• Economic Cooperation with Other Countries: India can position itself as a stable and attractive investment destination in the region. With Pakistan facing economic challenges, India can leverage its economic growth and stability to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and foster closer economic ties with other nations.

THE CONCLUSION:

The implications of escalating tensions in the region are multifaceted and extend beyond bilateral relations. The situation has the potential to impact regional stability, security dynamics, and the broader geopolitical landscape in the region. Diplomatic efforts and de-escalation measures is crucial to mitigate the risks and prevent further deterioration of the situation.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Q.1 Peace in the Indian subcontinent presupposes amity between India and Pakistan. Examine. (2018)

Q.2 In what ways would the ongoing U.S-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation? (2018)

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION

Q.1 The implications of escalating tensions in the region due to Baloch attacks on Gwadar Port are multifaceted and extend beyond bilateral relations. Comment.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/gwadar-attack-pakistan-army-failures-foreign-hand-excuse-9227155/

TAG: GS 3: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: Two mammal species, the binturong (Arctictis binturong) and small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus), were newly found in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve by Wildlife enthusiasts in Assam.

EXPLANATION:

• The binturong and small-clawed otter had been spotted in the region but had not been properly identified or recorded.
• This identification increases the number of mammal species in Northeast India’s biggest national park to 37.

BINTURONG

• Binturong also known as bearcat, is a mammal native to south and southeast Asia, is not easily found due to its nocturnal and arboreal habits.
• It is also uncommon in much of its range and in India it is known to have a distribution exclusive to the Northeast.
• It has been assessed as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature because of its declining population.
• Deforestation and fragmentation in their habitat threatened their populations.
• They live in elevated areas and prefer dense forests with a lot of canopy cover.
• The binturong is a shy nocturnal animal which makes it difficult to spot.

SMALL CLAWED OTTERS

• The small-clawed otter, the smallest otter species in the world, has a wide distribution range, extending through India in South Asia to eastwards in Southeast Asia and southern China.
• In India it is found mostly in the protected areas of West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh and in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and some parts of Kerala in the Western Ghats region..
• The species is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
• It is also classified as a vulnerable species in the IUCN Red List.
• It faces threat due to habitat destruction, poaching for pelt and reduction in prey.
• There are three different species of otters found in India. Among them, smooth coated otters and Eurasian otters are already found in Kaziranga and now small-clawed species is also among them.

Source:

https://scroll.in/article/1063819/kaziranga-two-new-species-identified

TAG: GS-3:   ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

THE CONTEXT:

Indian forests are facing a silent crisis. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall and deforestation are weakening their ability to absorb carbon dioxide (CO2), a vital role in combating global warming. This poses a major threat to the country’s ambitious climate goal of creating “an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030”, as per its Nationally Determined Contributions, updated in August 2022.

MORE ABOUT NEWS

• Carbon Absorption Challenges: Indian forests are facing challenges in their ability to absorb carbon dioxide, which is crucial for combating global warming. Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall, along with deforestation, are contributing to this issue.
• Photosynthesis Impact: While initially, increased CO2 levels might boost photosynthesis, the warming climate hinders the enzymes crucial for this process. Water stress from hotter temperatures and changing rainfall patterns further disrupts photosynthesis.
• Research Findings: Studies by teams from institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, and the Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Goa, reveal a decrease in CO2 absorption despite an increase in green cover in key forested regions.
• Factors Affecting CO2 Absorption: Factors such as leaf area index (LAI) and net primary productivity (NPP) are used to measure CO2 absorption. However, warming constraints are hindering the translation of increased green cover into increased carbon uptake.
• Need for Ground-Level Data: While satellite data provides a broad picture, ground-level observations are necessary to understand specific factors affecting different types of forests.
• Impact of Rising Temperatures: Rising temperatures are a crucial factor affecting forests, and their impact needs to be studied at the species level. Various studies are ongoing to understand how different ecosystems, such as mangrove forests, respond to temperature changes.
• Phenological Changes: Climate change is leading to phenological changes in plants and animals, which can have cascading effects on ecosystems, potentially leading to their collapse.
• Limited Data and Ongoing Studies: Comprehensive studies combining observational data and satellite observations are still in formative stages in India. Efforts are being made by institutions like ISRO and the Indian Institute of Science to understand the impact of climate change on forests through long-term studies.

About World Forest Day 2024:

• In 1971, World Forestry Day was established at the 23rd General Assembly of the European Confederation of Agriculture. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization decided to celebrate every year on March 21st. This event was decided to create awareness among the public about the importance of trees.
• In 2012, on November 28, the International Day of Forests was first established and it was decided to celebrate on March 21. Later, the United Nations General Assembly united the two international commemorations i.e. World Forestry Day and International Day of Forests, and decided to celebrate on 21st March every year. It is necessary to understand the values of Forests, trees, and plants as they provide raw materials, a source of income by providing local employment, etc.
• According to the UN, forests are home to about 80% of terrestrial biodiversity across the world, with more than 60,000 tree species. Approximately 1.6 billion people depend directly on forests for food, shelter, energy, medicine, and income.

Status of Forests in India

• As per the India State of Forest Report-2021, forest and tree cover in the country increased by 2,261 square kilometres since the last assessment in 2019.
• India’s total forest and tree cover was 80.9 million hectares, which accounted for 24.62% of the geographical area of the country.
  • The report said 17 States and Union Territories had more than 33% of their area under forest cover.
  • Madhya Pradesh had the largest forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
  • The top five States in terms of forest cover as a percentage of their total geographical area were Mizoram (84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74.34%) and Nagaland (73.90%).

SOURCE:  https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/forests/world-forest-day-2024-indian-forests-are-losing-their-ability-to-absorb-carbon-dioxide-due-to-climate-change-95157

TAG: GS-2:  INTERNATIONAL RELATION (IR)

THE CONTEXT:

IMF Senior Mission Chief for Sri Lanka attends a press conference in Colombo, Sri Lanka March 21, 2024.

BACKGROUND OF STORY:

• Sri Lanka, which in the 1970s was being hailed as a development success story for a low-income nation, is now mired in a financial and economic disaster, its worst yet since independence in 1948.
• Despite notable investments in infrastructure projects, and a largely stable growth rate from 2013 to 2019, the Sri Lankan story was marred by a series of untimely and mismanaged economic measures that led to the current meltdown.
• External factors have compounded the catastrophe, including the COVID-19 pandemic and the Ukraine-Russia conflict.
• The six crucial economic issues that have led to the Sri Lankan crisis: the impact of the 2019 tax cuts on the domestic economy; successive BOP crises; a series of IMF bailouts that went wrong; the sudden disastrous switch to organic farming; the downfall of the tourism sector following the 2019 Easter Sunday bombings; and soaring external debt.

MORE ABOUT NEWS

Sri Lanka’s Debt Deal Progress and IMF Support

This passage describes Sri Lanka’s progress in securing a debt restructuring plan and receiving financial assistance from the IMF.

• Debt Deal with India and Paris Club: Sri Lanka is close to finalizing a deal with India and a group of creditor nations (Paris Club) that involves:
  • Moratorium: A potential 6-year grace period before repaying the debt.
  • Reduced Interest Rates: Sri Lanka will likely benefit from lower interest rates on the debt.
• Importance of the Deal: Finalizing this agreement is crucial for Sri Lanka’s economic recovery plan as it helps manage its external debt.
• Private Creditors: Negotiations are ongoing with private creditors who hold a significant portion of Sri Lanka’s debt.
• IMF Support: Sri Lanka is closer to receiving the next tranche (payment) of a $3 billion IMF loan package.
  • Progress on Reforms: The IMF commends Sri Lanka’s efforts in controlling inflation, building foreign reserves, and improving public finances.
  • Next Steps: The IMF board’s approval will release about $337 million, bringing the total IMF assistance to $1 billion so far.

Official Creditor Committee: Seventeen countries that have extended loans to Sri Lanka formed the Official Creditor Committee (OCC) to facilitate debt restructuring negotiations. China, while not part of the committee, has been attending meetings as an observer. Sri Lanka has assured the OCC that it will negotiate repayment of Chinese loans on comparable terms.

The Paris Club: A Lifeline for Debtor Countries

The Paris Club is an informal group of wealthy nations that work together to help countries struggling with debt repayment. The Paris Club acts as a forum for debtor countries to negotiate debt relief with a group of major creditor nations.

The key points:

• History: Formed in 1956, it arose from a meeting between Argentina and its creditors in Paris.
• Goal: To find sustainable solutions for debtor countries unable to repay their government-to-government loans (bilateral loans).
• Members: The club comprises 22 developed economies, all members of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). These include major countries like the US, Japan, Germany, and France.
• Track Record: The Paris Club has a long history of success, reaching agreements with over 100 debtor countries and restructuring over $614 billion in debt.
• Shifting Landscape: While the Paris Club dominated bilateral lending in the past, China has emerged as a major creditor in recent decades.
• Sri Lanka’s Case: For Sri Lanka, China is the biggest bilateral creditor, followed by Japan and India. Negotiations with the Paris Club are just one piece of their debt restructuring puzzle.

The scenario of Sri Lanka debt:

• Sri Lanka in May 2022 became the first country in the Asia-Pacific to default on its debts in two decades , the result of domestic economic mismanagement and a surge in global inflation following the coronavirus pandemic.
• Sri Lanka has foreign debts of about $40bn. China, Japan and India are amongst the largest creditors.
• The IMF has cleared a $3-billion-Extended Fund Facility (EFF) in March 2023 for Sri Lanka but this loan facility has been stalled due to some disagreement between the creditors.
• Major lenders, excluding China, formed the Official Creditor Committee (OCC) in May 2023 in response to Colombo’s request for debt treatment. It is co-chaired by India, Japan, and France (as chair of the Paris Club)

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-to-secure-likely-six-year-moratorium-on-debt-owed-to-india-paris-club/article67976586.ece/amp/

TAG: GS- 3: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

THE CONTEXT:

The Supreme Court decision to form an expert panel to address the critical issue of balancing the conservation of the endangered Great Indian Bustard bird population and the deadline for the panel to submit its report to the Supreme Court by July 31 underscores the urgency of the matter while providing a clear timeline for action.

EXPLANATION:

MORE ABOUT NEWS:

• The Supreme Court’s decision to form an expert panel to address the critical issue of balancing the conservation of the endangered Great Indian Bustard bird population with the promotion of renewable energy sources is a significant step towards sustainable development and environmental protection.
• The panel’s mandate to assess the scope, extent, and feasibility of underground and overhead electric lines in priority areas for the Bustard population in Rajasthan and Gujarat underscores the importance of evidence-based decision-making. By considering factors such as habitat suitability, population dynamics, and technological feasibility, the committee can propose targeted interventions that minimize the risk of bird collisions while supporting the expansion of renewable energy infrastructure.
• Furthermore, the committee’s commitment to exploring alternative approaches and recommending additional measures to identify priority areas demonstrates a proactive stance towards finding holistic solutions that address the needs of both wildlife and human communities.

ABOUT GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD:

• It is known as the Indian Bustard, is a majestically large bird found on the Indian subcontinent.
• It is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world, with males reaching up to 1.2 meters (4 feet) tall and weighing in at 15 kg (33 pounds).
• These birds are easily distinguished by their black crown contrasting with their pale neck and head, and their brownish body with black, brown, and grey markings on their wings.
• The Great Indian Bustard is classified as critically endangered. Once common on the dry plains of India, there are only an estimated 150 individuals left in the wild.
• There are two main threats to their existence: habitat loss and hunting.
• Their natural habitat consists of large expanses of dry grasslands and scrub. However, this habitat is being lost due to agricultural development, overgrazing, and the planting of trees. Great Indian Bustards are hunted for their meat and feathers.

The distribution of the Great Indian Bustard:

• The great Indian bustard was distributed throughout Western India, spanning 11 states, as well as parts of Pakistan. Its stronghold was once the Thar desert in the north-west and the Deccan plateau of the peninsula. Today, its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc-forms-expert-panel-to-balance-bustard-conservation-with-sustainable-energy-goals/article67977617.ece

TAG: GS- 3: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

THE CONTEXT:

In recent years, microplastics have been reported as a major source of pollution affecting rivers and oceans.

EXPLANATION:

MORE ABOUT NEWS:

• The recent amendments to India’s Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2024, have introduced stricter criteria for labelling plastic products as “biodegradable”.
• Under the rules now require that biodegradable plastics must not leave any microplastics behind during the degradation process.
• This new stipulation aims to address concerns about microplastic pollution in the environment.
• The challenges associated with implementing these rules. One issue is the lack of specific guidelines regarding which chemical tests can accurately determine the absence of microplastics and to what extent microplastics must be reduced in a sample to be considered eliminated. The microplastics should be fair and applicable to both compostable and biodegradable plastics.
• The absence of clear standards has created uncertainty for manufacturers seeking to produce and label their products as biodegradable.
• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been hesitant to provide provisional certificates to such manufacturers, as the rules do not specify the degree of degradation necessary to qualify for certification.
• The distinction between biodegradable and compostable plastics is significant and these are intended to mitigate plastic pollution, compostable plastics require specialized industrial or municipal waste management facilities for proper degradation, whereas biodegradable plastics are expected to decompose naturally over time.

ABOUT THE MICROPLASTICS:

They are tiny plastic particles and  are defined as plastics less than five millimeters (0.2 inches) in diameter—smaller in diameter than the standard pearl used in jewelry.

There are two categories of microplastics:

• Primary: They are tiny particles designed for commercial use, such as cosmetics, as well as microfibers shed from clothing and other textiles, such as fishing nets.
• Secondary: They are particles that result from the breakdown of larger plastic items, such as water bottles. This breakdown is caused by exposure to environmental factors, mainly the sun’s radiation and ocean waves.

The problem with microplastics:

• It is that—like plastic items of any size—they do not readily break down into harmless molecules.
• Plastics can take hundreds or thousands of years to decompose—and in the meantime, wreak havoc on the environment.
• On beaches, microplastics are visible as tiny multicolored plastic bits in sand. In the oceans, microplastic pollution is often consumed by marine animals.
• Some of this environmental pollution is from littering, but much is the result of storms, water runoff, and winds that carry plastic—both intact objects and microplastics—into our oceans.
• Single-use plastics—plastic items meant to be used just once and then discarded, such as a straw—are the primary source of secondary plastics in the environment.
• They have been detected in marine organisms from plankton to whales, in commercial seafood, and even in drinking water. Alarmingly, standard water treatment facilities cannot remove all traces of microplastics.
• To further complicate matters, microplastics in the ocean can bind with other harmful chemicals before being ingested by marine organisms.
• Scientists are still unsure whether consumed microplastics are harmful to human or animal health—and if so, what specific dangers they may pose.
• Even so, many countries are taking action to reduce microplastics in the environment. A 2017 United Nations resolution discussed microplastics and the need for regulations to reduce this hazard to our oceans, their wildlife, and human health.

Biodegradable plastics

• Biodegradable plastic is plastic which degrades under biological (mainly microbial) action. Some biodegradable plastics are compostable (but not all), which means they degrade under controlled conditions, such as those occurring at compost (or anaerobic digestion) sites.
• Different biodegradable plastics only degrade under certain specified and tested conditions (g. degradable in soil, in wastewater treatment plants, etc), but most need industrial composting facilities, which, as we’ll argue further on, is their reasonable destination.
• They may biodegrade in open environment, but the speed at which this occurs is wide-ranging, and related test methods and standards are not sufficiently defined and universally accepted.
• Compostable plastics need to further adhere to a set of requirements such as fragmentation, absence of ecotoxicity and threshold concentrations of potential pollutants such as heavy metals.

Bioplastics, Bio-based, Biodegradable, Oxo-plastics

WHAT IS THE SINGLE-USE PLASTIC?

• It is most commonly used for packaging and serviceware, such as bottles, wrappers, straws, and bags.
• It is plastic we use once and throw away, often as quickly as minutes, such as disposable cups at parties.
• Half of the plastic produced each year is single use, which is nearly the same weight as the entire human population.
• A lot of single-use plastic ends up in our oceans, and by 2050, there will be more plastic in our ocean than fish.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/no-microplastics-new-rules-queer-the-pitch-for-biodegradable-plastics/article67977130.ece