TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: The emergence of the omicron subvariant JN.1 has raised concerns due to its unique mutation in the spike protein, specifically the L455S, referred to as a “FLip” mutation.

EXPLANATION:

• Researchers at the University of Tokyo have indicated that this mutation might facilitate evading immunity and contribute to a surge in COVID-19 cases.

Evolution from BA.2.86 Lineage to JN.1

• 1, an offshoot of the BA.2.86 lineage, swiftly gained dominance globally, characterized by its spike protein mutation and surpassing other omicron sublineages like EG.5.1 and HK.3.
• It’s noteworthy that JN.1’s rise doesn’t inherently denote increased danger but rather reflects the virus’s natural propensity to mutate.

Understanding “FLip” Mutations and Impact on Transmissibility

• The “FLip” mutations – L455S, L455F, and F456L – significantly alter the spike protein’s structure, enhancing the virus’s binding affinity to ACE2 receptors.
• This elevated binding potentially leads to increased transmissibility, as observed in the JN.1 lineage, outcompeting other variants.

Virological Insights and Transmissibility

• Research from Peking University in The Lancet Infectious Diseases revealed that JN.1, with the L455S mutation, rapidly dominated over its predecessor 2.86.
  • It strains with the “FLip” mutations, showcasing a higher effective reproductive number (Re), indicating increased transmissibility.

Implications on Immunity and Vaccination

• Studies from Biomedical Pioneering Innovation Center (BIOPIC) suggest that JN.1 exhibits a heightened ability to evade immunity.
• It is evident from individuals experiencing breakthrough infections post-vaccination or reinfections after prior omicron lineage infections.
• This raises concerns about potential vaccine evasion and the need for further vigilance.

Global Scenario and Public Health Concerns

• Globally, an increase in COVID-19 cases and a decrease in deaths have been reported.
• However, the accuracy of reported cases is affected by reduced testing and integrated reporting methods.
• This situation underscores the importance of continued vigilance and improved surveillance.

Regional Impact and Response

• Specifically, India observed a notable rise in cases within the Southeast Asia region, emphasizing the necessity for targeted responses, especially for vulnerable populations such as the elderly, those with comorbidities, and immunocompromised individuals.

CDC’s Assessment and Cautionary Measures

• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States flagged the escalating prevalence of JN.1 globally.
• While acknowledging its potential for increased transmissibility or immune evasion, the CDC cautioned that it’s premature to gauge the extent of its impact on infections or hospitalizations.

Future Trends and Emerging Concerns

• Despite JN.1’s surge, EG.5 remains the most reported Variant of Interest (VOI) globally.
• However, it has exhibited declining trends in recent weeks, signalling a dynamic landscape of emerging variants and the necessity for ongoing monitoring and analysis.

Conclusion

• The emergence and dominance of omicron subvariant JN.1, characterized by the “FLip” mutation, pose potential challenges related to transmissibility, immune evasion, and vaccine efficacy.
• Vigilant surveillance, robust research, and targeted interventions are crucial to mitigate the impact and better understand the evolving landscape of SARS-CoV-2 variants.

SOURCE: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/health/-flip-mutations-of-sars-cov-2-may-be-evading-immunity-and-leading-to-surge-in-covid-cases-suggest-researchers-93553

TAG: GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: Recent official data highlighted a substantial increase in female participation in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) during the ongoing financial year 2023-24.

EXPLANATION:

• The proportion of women’s person-days in the total MGNREGS work touched an impressive 59.25% until December 24, marking the highest recorded participation in the past ten fiscal years.
• This upward trend in female participation within NREGS showcases a significant surge from 54.78% in 2019-20 and 53.19% during the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020-21.

NREGS Data Analysis

• The NREGS portal data reveals a detailed breakdown, indicating that out of a total of 238.62 crore person-days during 2023-24 until December 24, women accounted for 141.37 crore person-days, reflecting the increased participation rate.
• Furthermore, the data suggests a consistent rise in female involvement, reinforcing a steady upward trajectory in rural women’s engagement in this job guarantee scheme.

Regional Disparities and State-Level Participation Rates

• Notably, while southern states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and Goa exhibited commendable rates of women’s participation, surpassing 70%, northern states such as Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have struggled to maintain rates above 40% or even below over the years.
• For the fiscal year 2023-24, states/UTs like Jammu and Kashmir, Lakshadweep, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra reported the lowest women participation rates.
• However, there have been marginal improvements in participation rates in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Lakshadweep during the current financial year.

Trends in NREGS Participation

• The data reflects an increase in the number of families availing NREGS benefits in recent years.
• In 2023-24, approximately 5.38 crore families accessed NREGS by December 24, marking a slight decline compared to 6.18 crore in 2022-23 and 7.25 crore in 2021-22.
• Despite fluctuations in family participation, the focus remains on the rising trend of female involvement in NREGS activities.

National Trends in Female Labour Force Participation

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation underscores an overall increase in female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) in the country, particularly in rural areas.
• The rural female LFPR surged to 30.5% in 2022-23 from 18.2% in 2017-18, indicating a remarkable growth trajectory.
• Simultaneously, the female unemployment rate witnessed a decline from 3.8% in 2017-18 to 1.8% in 2022-23, affirming positive strides in women’s employment opportunities.

Conclusion

• The burgeoning participation of women in employment schemes like NREGS reflects a growing trend of empowerment and engagement in the rural workforce.
• Despite regional disparities, the concerted efforts to elevate female participation are evident, aligning with broader national trends in increasing female Labour Force Participation Rates and declining unemployment rates among women.

SOURCE: https://indianexpress.com/article/india/women-participation-in-nregs-continues-to-rise-59-this-fiscal-9082675/

TAG: GS 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, GS 3: ECONOMY

THE CONTEXT: India and the ASEAN bloc are gearing up to reevaluate and modernize their Free Trade Agreement (FTA) dating back almost 15 years.

EXPLANATION:

• Top of Form
• The primary intention behind this initiative is to rebalance the FTA, which currently appears skewed against India’s interests.
• However, this modernization exercise will focus on revitalizing elements like product-specific rules and trade remedies, omitting newer areas such as labour, environment, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs), and gender-related aspects.

Negotiation Schedule and Objectives

• Negotiations to review the ASEAN India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITGA) will commence on February 18-19 in New Delhi, with a projected timeline aiming to conclude by 2025.
• The discussions are slated to follow a quarterly schedule to streamline the revision process.
• India has long pushed for a reassessment of the AITGA, particularly due to the imbalance in trade.
• The current trade deficit of $43.57 billion with the ASEAN, significantly expanded from $7.5 billion annually when the agreement was initiated, prompts India to seek a more balanced trade scenario.

Challenges and Industry Inputs

• Various industry sectors in India have raised concerns regarding both tariff and non-tariff barriers encountered in trade with ASEAN nations.
• Sectors like chemicals, alloys, plastics, rubber, minerals, leather, textiles, gems, and jewellery need enhanced market access, according to industry analyses.

Key Components of FTA Revamp

• Modernizing the AITGA encompasses significant alterations in the Rules of Origin (ROO), intending to favour India by potentially expanding market access for specific products and preventing the circumvention of goods by China through ASEAN nations.
• This revamp is anticipated to introduce Product Specific Rules (PSRs) within the ROO chapter to facilitate relaxed rules for certain items to bolster exports and curb potential loopholes exploited by China.
• Additionally, the revised AITGA will include a chapter on trade remedies, aiming to shield domestic industries against unfair trade practices or sudden surges in imported goods.

Exclusion of New Areas in FTA

• The updated FTA will not include additional domains like environment, labour, MSMEs, or gender-related aspects.
• The primary focus remains on optimizing the existing pact without complicating it with newer issues.

ASEAN’s Role and Impact on India’s Trade

• The ten-member ASEAN bloc, including countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia, constituted 11.3% of India’s global trade in the 2022-23 period.

Conclusion

• The modernization of the India-ASEAN FTA aims to rectify trade imbalances and reinvigorate the agreement to benefit both parties.
• By addressing concerns regarding market access, rules of origin, and trade remedies, the updated agreement seeks to foster a more equitable trade relationship between India and the ASEAN bloc.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/india-asean-set-to-review-trade-pact-for-modernisation-in-february/article67673605.ece

TAG: GS 2: POLITY AND GOVERNANCE

THE CONTEXT: The Indian government, through the PM-JANMAN package, aims to address the needs of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) residing in 15,000 habitations across 100 districts.

EXPLANATION:

• This initiative targets the saturation of essential documentation—Aadhaar, caste certificates, and Jan Dhan accounts—necessary to grant access to benefits under the program.

Scope and Objectives of the Campaign

• The campaign, commencing on December 25, endeavours to cover 100 districts spanning 18 states and the UT of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The first phase will focus on PVTG habitations, estimated at over 22,000 across various states, housing around 28 lakh individuals.
• The comprehensive objective is to encompass all eligible beneficiaries within the PM-JANMAN package.

Components of the PM-JANMAN Package

• This package consolidates 11 critical interventions already implemented by nine Ministries, including initiatives for housing, household electrification, road connectivity, telecommunications, and more.
• The government aims to channelize these interventions towards achieving saturation in PVTG villages and habitations.

Funding and Government Commitment

• Prime Minister announced the package, which received approval for a ₹24,000 crore expenditure over three years.
• However, during a government plenary session on December 15, the necessity of ensuring basic documentation for PVTG beneficiaries was highlighted as a prerequisite for implementing any aspect of the PM-JANMAN package.

Implementation Strategy and Action Plan

• An intensive Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) campaign starting on December 25, 2023, will drive the initiative.
• A detailed action plan involves coordination between various stakeholders, including UIDAI, CSC, Ministry of Agriculture, PMJAY, District Magistrates, and other departments.
• The goal is to achieve document saturation within one week in these PVTG habitations.

Awareness Creation and Local Engagement

• Efforts to produce informative material in local languages, such as pamphlets, videos, wall paintings, jingles, and cultural programs, form an integral part of the campaign.
• District-level officers, each assigned to a district, will supervise these activities, while state-level officers will coordinate with relevant state departments for seamless implementation.

Role of Tribal Research Institutes and Social Media Campaign

• Tribal Research Institutes in various states have been assigned duties to assist in planning and executing campaign activities at different administrative levels.
• Additionally, a social media campaign with specific hashtags aims to engage a broader audience and generate online discussions regarding the initiative’s objectives and progress.

Conclusion

• The PM-JANMAN initiative underscores the government’s commitment to uplift Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups by addressing their essential documentation needs.
• This comprehensive approach seeks to ensure the inclusion of all eligible beneficiaries, providing them access to vital services and benefits outlined in the package.

SOURCE: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/pm-janman-government-targets-aadhaar-jan-dhan-caste-certificate-saturation-in-15000-pvtg-villages-in-1-week/article67674235.ece

TAG: GS 3: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THE CONTEXT: NASA’s Perseverance rover, actively conducting essential investigations on Mars’ surface, made a significant discovery.

EXPLANATION:

• Captured by its Mastcam-Z camera, an image revealed an intriguing assortment of rocks and pebbles within Mars’ Jezero Crater, specifically identified as ‘Castell Henllys.’
• Analysis suggests that these formations were transported by robust floodwaters billions of years ago, indicating a dynamic aqueous history on the Martian surface.

Ancient Mysteries of Mars: Water and Potential for Life

• Mars, the enigmatic red planet, has captivated human imagination for centuries, often portrayed in various narratives as a celestial body of mystery and possibility.
• Over decades of scientific exploration and study, compelling evidence has emerged, indicating that Mars once hosted rivers, lakes, and potentially oceans of liquid water.
• This revelation fuels the tantalizing prospect of the red planet having supported life in its distant past.
• While conclusive evidence of life on Mars remains elusive, the consensus among scientists is strong regarding Mars’ watery history.
• This understanding stems from observations, including recent findings from NASA’s Perseverance rover.

Astrobiology Goals: Seeking Life Beyond Earth

• The Perseverance mission encompasses pivotal objectives in astrobiology, aiming to ascertain definitive evidence of extraterrestrial life.
• While this life may not mirror the alien depictions often seen in popular culture, the discovery of microorganisms or their fossils on Mars would mark a groundbreaking scientific achievement.

Significance of Water in the Search for Life Beyond Earth

• Why the persistent quest for water on other planets?
• Earth’s own evolutionary history holds the key.
• After an initial lifeless phase, Earth witnessed the emergence of life within aquatic environments, starting with microorganisms and gradually evolving into complex aquatic organisms.
• This progression further led to the development of terrestrial life forms.
• Scientists emphasize that the presence of water significantly enhances the probability of a planet fostering life.
• Beyond Mars, another celestial candidate of immense interest is Europa, Jupiter’s moon.
• Europa, a frozen world, holds the tantalizing possibility of a vast liquid ocean beneath its icy exterior, potentially harbouring life.

Conclusion: Continual Exploration and the Pursuit of Extraterrestrial Life

• The exploration of Mars, with its historical evidence of water and ongoing discoveries by missions like Perseverance, stands as a testament to humanity’s relentless pursuit of understanding our place in the cosmos.
• Unravelling the mysteries of distant planets not only deepens scientific knowledge but also fuels the enduring fascination with the potential for life beyond Earth, beckoning us to explore further into the depths of our celestial neighbourhood.

SOURCE: https://www.wionews.com/science/nasa-perseverance-rover-finds-evidence-of-flowing-water-on-mars-673378

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THE CONTEXT: In September 2023, the Parliament passed the historic Constitution (One Hundred and sixth Amendment) Bill also known as the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam. This Bill aims to reserve 33% of seats in the Lok Sabha, State Assemblies and the National Capital Territory of Delhi for women. The following article attempts to analyse this Bill(Now Act) and its repercussions on the Indian socio-political scene from UPSC perspective.

KEY ASPECTS OF THE 106^TH CAA, 2023

The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023 suggests modifying a single constitutional provision, Article 239AA, and adding three new articles: Articles 330A, 332A, and 334A.

Article 239AA (Amended)

• Article 239AA to the constitution grants special status to the Union Territory of Delhi as national capital with regards to its administrative and legislative functioning.
• Article 239AA(2)(b) was amended by the Act accordingly to add that the laws framed by parliament shall apply to the National Capital territory of Delhi.

Articles 330A

• The Act provided that reserved seats for women may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in states or Union Territories for representation in the Lok Sabha.
• In the seats reserved for SCs/STs, the Act sought to provide one-third of the seats to be reserved for women on rotational basis.

Articles 332A

• The reservation of seats for women in every state Legislative Assembly.
• Additionally, one-third of the seats reserved for SCs and STs must be allocated for women, and one-third of the total seats filled through direct elections to the Legislative Assemblies shall also be reserved for women (Article 332).

Articles 334A

• The reservation will be effective after the census conducted after the commencement of this Act.
• Based on the census, delimitation will be undertaken to reserve seats for women.
• The reservation will be provided for a period of 15 years (Sunset Clause).
• However, it shall continue till such date as determined by a law made by Parliament.
• Provisions of this act shall not affect any representation in legislative assemblies and the Lok Sabha until their dissolution.

TRACING THE EVOLUTION OF RESERVATION FOR WOMEN IN LEGISLATURES

WHAT ARE THE ISSUES IN THE NARI SHAKTI VANDAN ADHINIYAM, 2023?

DELAYED IMPLEMENTATION AND ROTATIONAL MEMBERSHIP

• The Opposition has expressed concerns about linking the implementation of women’s reservation to the periodic delimitation exercise, which could cause significant delays in the quota’s enforcement.
• The decennial Census, originally scheduled for 2021 but delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, is yet to be conducted. This implies that the implementation of women’s reservation will likely be postponed for several years.
• The act provides for rotation of seats after every delimitation exercise as against after every general election to the Parliament/ State legislative assemblies.

OVERLOOKING WOMEN FROM OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES (OBCs)

• While there is reserved representation for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, there isn’t a distinct reservation for OBCs, who constitute over 40% of the population.
• Two Lok Sabha members, Asaduddin Owaisi and Syed Imtiyaz Jaleel of the AIMIM, opposed the Bill because they felt it should include separate quotas for OBC and Muslim women, as both communities are underrepresented in Parliament and Legislative Assemblies.

AGAINST EQUALITY

• Idea of reservation runs counter to the principle of equality enshrined in the Constitution (Article 15), as women may not be competing on merit.
• There also is a concern that women who are nominated purely because of the reservation might not be as experienced or qualified as other candidates.

INSTRUMENTALIZATION OF WOMEN

• There’s a risk of women being used as political pawns, with male relatives or party leaders pulling the strings behind the scenes.
• In such cases, women may not have genuine agency and authority in decision-making.

LESS IMPACT ON POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

• There are larger issues of electoral reforms such as criminalization of politics, internal democracy in political parties, etc., that might act as an impediment to political empowerment of women.
• Further, India has ranked 127^th/146 in the recent gender inequality index. India’s neighbours Pakistan ranked at 142, Bangladesh at 59, China at 107, Nepal at 116, Sri Lanka at 115 and Bhutan at 103. This shows mere Parliamentary representation may not completely change ground realities for women.

DISPARITY ACROSS STATES

• The act provides for reservation of 1/3rd seats across all Lok Sabha seats as against provision of reserving 1/3rd seat in each State/UT as mentioned in 2008 bill.

RESERVATION IN RAJYA SABHA AND LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS

• The Act does not contain any provision for reservation for women in Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils of the States.
• The Geeta Mukherjee Committee (1996) recommended providing reservation for women in Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils as well.

DELIMITATION

Delimitation involves adjusting the boundaries and number of seats in legislative bodies based on the latest Census data. The last delimitation order by the Delimitation Commission was issued in 2008, defining constituency boundaries. However, there’s currently a freeze on altering the number of seats in State Assemblies and the Lok Sabha. In 2002, Article 82 was amended to postpone the necessity of reallocating Lok Sabha constituencies and State divisions until after the 2026 Census.

WHY SHOULD INDIA GIVE RESERVATION FOR WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT?

Countries like India have compelling reasons to implement reservations for women in Parliament to promote gender equality and address historical and structural disparities. Here are some key arguments in favor of providing reservations for women in parliamentary seats:

GENDER EQUALITY

• One of the primary reasons for women’s reservation in Parliament is to rectify historical gender imbalances in political representation.
• Women have been traditionally underrepresented in politics, and reservations aim to correct this inequality.

POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT

• Women’s reservation empowers women to actively participate in decision-making processes and influence public policies.
• It ensures that women’s voices and perspectives are heard and considered in political discourse.

DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES

• Greater gender diversity in Parliament results in a broader range of perspectives on issues like health, education, and social welfare. This can lead to more holistic and effective policymaking.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

• Reservations for women can help address societal injustices and promote gender equity by offering opportunities to marginalized and underprivileged women who may not otherwise have access to political power.

ROLE MODELS

• Women in leadership positions serve as role models for younger generations, encouraging girls to aspire to political careers and breaking down gender stereotypes.

LEGAL PROTECTIONS

• Women in Parliament can advocate for and enact legislation that promotes women’s rights, safety, and welfare, addressing issues like domestic violence, workplace harassment, and gender discrimination.

INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS

• Many countries have international obligations to promote gender equality, as per agreements like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Women’s reservation policies help fulfill these obligations.
• India is a signatory to Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). The treaty was signed on 30th July, 1980 and was ratified on 9th July, 1993.

WOMEN HIGHLY UNDERREPRESENTED IN THE PARLIAMENT

• While the percentage of women MPs in India has increased from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to 15% in the 17th Lok Sabha, it remains relatively low.
• While countries like Rwanda have about 60 percent women in the Parliament, the percentage of women representatives in the Indian Parliament hovers around a mere 15 percent in Lok Sabha and 14 percent in Rajya Sabha, while they constitute about half of India’s total populace.

While reservations for women in Parliament have generated debate and discussion, proponents argue that they are a necessary step to address long-standing gender disparities and ensure a more equitable and inclusive political system.

PROPONENTS AND OPPONENTS FOR RESERVATIONS FOR WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT

PROPONENTS

• Addressing Underrepresentation: Women’s reservations are seen as a necessary measure to address the historical underrepresentation of women in politics, ensuring that their voices are heard and their concerns are addressed.
• Promoting Gender Equality: Reservations promote gender equality, which is not only a fundamental human right but also essential for a just and equitable society.
• Diverse Perspectives: A more diverse representation in Parliament ensures that a broader range of perspectives is considered in policymaking, which can lead to more comprehensive and effective governance.
• Impact on Public Goods: Studies have shown that women elected under reservation policies tend to invest more in public goods closely linked to women’s concerns, such as education and healthcare.
• Eliminating Discrimination: International agreements, such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, call for the elimination of discrimination against women in political and public life, and reservations can be a means to fulfill these obligations.
• Positive Outcomes in Local Governance: Reservation policies for women at the local level have been found to enable women to make meaningful contributions to governance, and concerns about women being proxies to men have not materialized.
• Global Perspective: Many countries have successfully implemented women’s reservation policies and quotas, reflecting a global trend in promoting gender equity in politics.

OPPONENTS

• Narrow Outlook: Some opponents argue that women’s reservations may lead to a narrow outlook as women may be seen as not competing on merit but rather through a separate constituency.

o For example, during the Constituent Assembly discussions, Renuka Ray (Member of the Lok Sabha (1957–1967)) argued against reserving seats for women, stating that women would have more opportunities if their consideration was solely based on their competence.

• Perpetuating Unequal Status: Critics argue that such reservations could perpetuate unequal status, as women might be viewed as not being able to compete in general constituencies on their merit alone.
• Issues with rotational representation: The rotation of reserved constituencies in each election could reduce the incentive of an MP to work for their constituency, as they may become ineligible to seek re-election from that same constituency.
• Larger Electoral Issues: Opponents emphasize that larger issues affecting the political system, such as criminalization of politics, internal party democracy, and financial transparency, have not been adequately addressed by these reservations.
• Not All Women Benefit: Some argue that the benefits of reservations primarily accrue to women from privileged backgrounds, leaving out marginalized and underprivileged women.

THE WAY FORWARD

AMBEDKAR’S VISION FOR INCLUSIVITY

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian Constitution, stressed the importance of social justice and inclusivity. In the spirit of Ambedkar’s vision, reservations for women can be seen as a means to ensure equal political participation for a historically marginalized group.

RESERVATION BASED ON INCLUSIVE OUTCOMES FOR THE SOCIETY

• A parliamentary committee in 2009 noted that reserving seats for women in local bodies has enabled them to make significant contributions and dispelled concerns about women merely being proxies for men.
• A 2010 study by the Harvard Kennedy School also showed that female representation in village councils increased female participation and responsiveness to concerns such as drinking water, infrastructure, sanitation and roads.
• Thus, reserving seats for woman in the Parliament is definitely a game changer in the process of women empowerment.

INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS

• The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), to which India is a signatory, obliges the country to eliminate gender discrimination in political life. Reservations for women align with this international commitment. Thus, the Indian government must ensure that this law fructifies efficiently at ground.

GEETA MUKHERJEE COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS

• Recommendations of the Geetha Mukherjee Committee must be implemented which include reservations given in the Rajya Sabha and the state Legislative Council.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS

• Comparative analysis with countries that have successfully implemented women’s reservations, like Rwanda and Nordic countries, highlights the positive outcomes in terms of gender equality and women’s welfare.

POLITICAL PARTY REFORMS

• While women’s reservations are crucial, broader electoral and political party reforms are equally important.
• Addressing issues like criminalization in politics, ensuring internal democracy within parties, and curbing the influence of black money can create a more conducive environment for women to thrive in politics.

THE CONCLUSION: The issue of women’s reservation in the Indian Parliament resonates deeply with philosophical principles of justice, equality, and democracy. In a nation that aspires to be a beacon of democratic values, this question is not merely about increasing numbers; it is a matter of upholding the very essence of democracy and social justice. The idea of equal participation in decision-making processes is a cornerstone of democracy. It aligns with John Rawls’ “difference principle,” which posits that inequalities are justifiable only if they benefit the least advantaged. Reserving seats for women recognize the historical disadvantage faced by women in politics and society at large and seeks to rectify this inequity.

QUESTIONS:

Q 1. Discuss the historical evolution of women’s reservation in the Indian Parliament. What are the key challenges and prospects associated with its implementation?

Q 2. How far do you agree with the view that the 106^th CAA is a truly transformative intervention towards making the Indian political democracy engendered?

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Key changes between 2008 Bill and Bill introduced in 2023

	Bill introduced in 2008 as passed by Rajya Sabha	Bill introduced in 2023
Reservation in Lok Sabha	One-third of Lok Sabha seats in each state/UT to be reserved for women	One-third seats to be reserved for women
Rotation of Seats	Reserved seats to be rotated after every general election to Parliament/legislative assembly	Reserved seats to be rotated after every delimitation exercise

GEETA MUKHERJEE COMMITTEE

The Geeta Mukherjee Committee, formed in 1996 to study and make recommendations on the Women’s Reservation Bill, proposed several key recommendations to address the issue of women’s reservation in Indian politics. These recommendations were aimed at ensuring greater political representation for women. Here are some of the key recommendations made by the Geeta Mukherjee Committee:

• 33% Reservation: The committee recommended the reservation of 33% of seats for women in both the Lok Sabha (the lower house of India’s Parliament) and state legislative assemblies. This reservation would have applied to both general and reserved constituencies. It also advocated reservation for women in the Rajya Sabha as well as the State Legislative Councils.
• Rotation of Reserved Seats: To ensure equitable representation, the committee suggested the rotation of reserved seats for women in successive elections. This means that different constituencies would be reserved for women in different election cycles.
• Reservation for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST): The committee proposed that out of the reserved seats for women, one-third should be further reserved for women from SC and ST communities. This aimed to address the dual disadvantage faced by women from these marginalized groups.
• Reservation for Anglo-Indian Community: The committee suggested the continuation of reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies. This was aimed at safeguarding the interests of this minority community.
• Two-Child Norm: The committee recommended that persons with more than two living children should be ineligible to contest the elections under the women’s reservation provision. This recommendation aimed to encourage family planning.
• Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections: The committee suggested the introduction of a sub-quota within the women’s reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS).

THE CONTEXT: There are many indications everywhere that India continues to be going through a job crisis. Both official data sources as well as many on-the-ground reports point to this fact.

Two types of employment that prevail in an economy such as India.

1. Wage employment: It is a result of labour demanded by employers in their pursuit of profits.

2. Self-employment: Here labour supply and labour demand are identical, i.e., the worker employs herself.

A further useful distinction can also be made between wage labour and jobs.

1. Wage labour: It includes all forms of labour done for an employer including daily wage work at one extreme and highly paid corporate jobs at the other.

2. Jobs generally refer to relatively better paid regular wage or salaried employment. In other words, all jobs are wage labour, but all wage labour cannot be called jobs.

The labour demand in the formal non-agricultural sector is determined by two distinct factors:

1. Demand for output: Firms in the formal sector hire workers to produce output for profit, labour demand depends on the amount of output that firms are able to sell. Under any given level of technological development, labour demand in the formal sector rises when demand for output rises.

2. State of technology: Labour demand depends on the state of technology that dictates the number of workers that firms need to hire to produce one unit of output. Introduction of labour-saving technologies enables firms to produce the same amount of output by hiring a lower number of workers.

Employment growth rate is determined by the relative strength of two factors:

1. Output growth rate: Policies that promote higher economic growth would also achieve higher employment growth.

2. Labour productivity growth rate i.e growth rate of output per worker: If labour productivity growth rate rises, employment growth rate falls for a given output growth rate. If labour productivity growth rate does not change, higher output growth rate increases employment growth rate.

Macroeconomic policy framework

• Keynesian theory: It highlight the role of aggregate demand as the binding constraint on employment. Fiscal policy was perceived to increase labour demand by stimulating output. The developing countries that inherited a dual economy structure during their independence, confronted additional constraints on output.
• Mahalanobis strategy: It identified the availability of capital goods as the binding constraint on output and employment, putting forward the policy for heavy industrialisation.
• The structuralist theories based on the experiences of developing countries highlighted the possibility of agrarian constraint and the balance of payment constraints.
• Both these constraints led to key policy debates in India, particularly during the decade of the 1970s and early 1990s.
• Nonetheless, what remained common to all these different frameworks was the presumption that increasing the output growth rate in the non-agricultural sector would be a sufficient condition for increasing the employment growth rate in the formal sector.

Reasons for this crisis:

• Low labour demand: There is inadequate labour demand particularly for regular wage work.
• Disguised employment: The Indian economy has historically been characterised by the presence of both open unemployment and disguised employment. It means high level of informal employment consisting of the self-employed as well as casual wage workers. It also indicates a lack of adequate employment opportunities in the formal sector. This lack of opportunities is reflected by a more or less stagnant employment growth rate of salaried workers in the non-agricultural sector in the last four decades.
• Jobless growth: In India, the employment growth rate of the formal and non-agricultural sector remained unresponsive despite a significant rise in the GDP growth rate and the value added growth rate during the 2000s as compared to the decade of the 1980s and 1990s. The lack of responsiveness of employment growth rate to changes in output growth rate reflects a phenomenon of jobless growth.

Two types of jobless growth regimes based on the connection between output growth and labour productivity growth.

1. Responsiveness of labour productivity growth rate to output growth rate is weak: The possibility of jobless growth in this case emerges exclusively on account of automation and the introduction of labour-saving technology. But employment growth rate in such regimes would necessarily increase if output growth rate happens to increase. Here, the solution to the jobs crisis is just more rapid economic growth.

2. Responsiveness of labour productivity growth rate to output growth rate is high: This is the case in Inda. Here, the positive effect of output growth rate on employment fails to counteract the adverse effect of labour-saving technologies. Employment growth rate in such regimes cannot be increased simply by increasing GDP growth rate.

THE WAY FORWARD:

• Both demand and supply side reforms: Such employment policies will need both demand side and supply side components. At the same time, direct public job creation will be needed.
• Bridging the skill gaps: There is a need for adequate skilled labour and increasing the quality of the workforce through better public provisioning of education and health care.
• Reorienting macroeconomic framework: Financing expenditures while maintaining debt-stability requires the reorienting of the current macroeconomic framework in a significant way. It can include increasing the direct tax to GDP ratio by reducing exemptions and improving compliance.

THE CONCLUSION:

With the given scenarios, the employment challenge can no longer be met only through more rapid GDP growth. There is a need for separate policy focus on employment.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Q) Faster economic growth requires increased share of the manufacturing sector in GDP, particularly of MSMEs. Comment on the present policies of the Government in this regard. (2023)

Q) Is inclusive growth possible under market economy? State the significance of financial inclusion in achieving economic growth in India. (2022)

MAINS PRACTICE QUESTIONS

India is witnessing jobless growth in current times. In this respect, analyse India’s recent economic performance and its impact on job creation.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/indias-jobs-crisis-the-macroeconomic-reasons/article67671927.ece